PRESENTED  TO  THE  LIBRARY 


■ ' 


VALUABLE  WORKS 

PUBLISHED  BY 

J.  & J.  HARPER,  82  CLIFF-STREET,  NEW-YORK, 

And  for  Sale  by  the  principal  Booksellers  in  the  United  States. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS.  Ey  tlie  Rev.  H.  H. 

Milman.  In  3 vols.  18mo»  Illustrated  witli  original 

Maps  and  Woodcuts. 

“ The  Editors  of  the  Family  Library  have  been  most  fortunate  in  en- 
gaging on  this  work  the  pen  of  a scholar,  both  classical  and  scriptural, 
and  so  elegant  and  powerful  a writer  as  the  Poetry  Professor.  Few 
theological  works  of  this  order  have  appeared  either  in  ours  or  in  any 
other  language.  To  the  Christian  reader  of  every  age  and  sex — and  we 
may  add  of  every  sect — it  will  be  a source  of  the  purest  delignt,  instruc- 
tion, and  comfort ; and  of  the  infidels  who  open  it  merely  that  they  may 
not  remain  in  ignorance  of  a work  placed  by  general  consent  in  the  rank 
of  an  English  classic,  is  there  not  every  reason  to  hope  that  many  will 
lay  it  down  in  a far  different  mood?” — Blackwood's  Magazine. 

“Though  the  subject  is  trite,  the  manner  of  treating  it  is  such  as  to 
command  our  deepest  attention.  While  the  work  has  truth  and  simplicity 
enough  to  fascinate  a child,  it  is  written  with  a masterliness  of  the  sub- 
ject and  an  elegance  of  composition  that  will  please  the  most  refined 
and  fastidious  reader.” — E.  Saturday's  Post. 

“ The  narrative  of  the  various  and  highly  interesting  events  in  that 
period  flows  on  in  a chaste  style ; and  a thorough  knowledge  of  his  sub- 
ject is  evident  in  every  page.  The  work  is  spirited,  well  arranged,  and 
full  of  information,  and  of  a wise  and  well  cultivated  spirit.” — Athenaeum. 

“Professor  H.  H.  Milman  is  one  of  the  most  chaste  and  classical 
writers  of  the  age.  His  Bampton  Lectures  contain  some  of  the  most 
glowing  and  graphic  descriptions  which  we  ever  read.  The  History  of 
the  Jews  embraced  in  the  volumes  before  us,  has  already  passed  through 
three  editions  in  England,  and  is  highly  and  justly  commended  by  many 
of  the  most  respectable  periodicals.” — N.  Y.  Journal  of  Commerce. 

“It  is  written  in  a very  interesting  manner — in  a more  philosophical 
spirit,  and  with  more  depth  of  reflection,  than  is  generally  found  in  his- 
tories of  this  nature.  It  is  not  wanting  in  historical  condensation,  and  the 
colouring  of  the  style  is  lively  and  picturesque.” — N.  Y.  Evening  Post. 

“ The  style  in  which  it  is  written  is  remarkably  lucid  and  elegant ; 
attractive  by  its  general  smoothness  and  simplicity,  yet  animated  and 
forcible.  The  work  must  be  popular,  and  we  doubt  not  ranked  among 
the  classics  of  the  language.” — Baltimore  Republican. 

“ Mr.  Milman’s  work  is  calculated  to  interest  and  instruct  a greater 
number  of  readers,  of  all  ages,  than  any  book  which  has  been  produced 
for  many  years.”— Philadelphia  Daily  < hronicle. 

“ This  History  of  the  Jews  is  the  best  we  have  ever  seen.” 

Nem-England,  Palladium. 


LIFE  OF  NAPOLEON  BUONAPARTE.  By  J.  G. 

Lockhart,  Esq.  With  Copperjrlate  Engravings. 

2 vols.  18mo. 

“ We  never  met  with  more  solid  information  compressed  within  so 
small  a space ; and  yet  the  brevity  of  the  style  never  runs  into  obscurity. 
On  the  contrary,  we  should  be  much  at  a loss  to  point  out  such  another 
specimen  of  narrative  clearness  in  the  whole  range  of  contemporary  lite- 
rature. Two  volumes  so  rich  in  information  and  interest,  so  much  to  be 
devoured  by  youth,  and  so  worthy  to  be  consulted  by  the  matures!  reader, 
would  constitute  certainly  one  of  the  cheapest  of  all  possible  cheap  books. 
Of  a work  already  so  widely  known  it  would  be  ridiculous  to  multiply 
specimens  in  these  pages.”— Blackwood's  Magazine. 

“ We  anticipate  a prodigious  circulation  for  this  attractive  work.  It  is 
drawn  up  with  consummate  ability.  Indeed,  we  have  seldom  perused  a 
work  more  uniformly  interesting  in  its  details.” — Sun. 

“ The  first  volumes  of  this  work  secured  for  it  the  attention  and  patron- 
age of  the  public;  and  the  continued  ability  displayed  in  these  succeeding 
numbers  has  gained  it  an  introduction  into  most  of  the * * *  4 family  libraries,’ 
not  only  in  England,  but  in  Europe.  Suiting  itself  to  the  hardship  of  the 
times,  this  work  is  published  in  a form  and  at  a price  which  render  it 
accessible  to  all  classes  of  the  reading  public.” — S.  Herald. 

“After  the  merited  praise  that  has  already  been  given  to  this  work,  it 
cannot  be  supposed  that  we  have  any  thing  particularly  original  to  offer 
respecting ’t.” — B.  Mirror. 

“ It  is,  unquestionably,  in  a brief  and  tangible  form,  the  most  popular 
History  of  Napoleon  that  has  been  yet  produced.” — Atlas. 

“ This  is  a much  better  book  than  any  otuer  in  English  on  the  same 
subject.” — Athenaeum. 


LIFE  OF  NELSON.  By  Rolbert  Southey)  Esq.  With 
a Portrait.  18mo. 

“ This  is  the  best  work  that  ever  came  from  the  pen  of  the  laureate, 
audit  is  an  excellent  specimen  of  biography.”— New  England  Palladium. 

“The  merits  of  this  work  are  so  well  known  that  it  is  altogether  un- 
necessary to  recomipend  it  to  our  readers.” — New-  York  Evening  Post. 

“ The  illustrious  subject  of  this  volume,  and  the  reputation  of  Southey 
as  a biographer,  will  be  a sufficient  guarantee  for  the  interest  of  the 
work.” — New- York  Constellation. 

“ Southey’s  fine  and  popular  biography  of  Nelson  was  very  much 
wanted,  and  is  now  to  be  had  very  cheap,  in  a very  neat  and  convenient 
form.” — New-York  Commercial  Advertiser. 

“ We  take  much  pleasure  in  recommending  this  Library  to  the  public, 
because  we  really  consider  it  as  useful  and  as  deserving  of  encourage- 
ment as  any  work  that  has  ever  been  in  the  American  press.” — New- 
York  Courier  <$-  Enquirer. 

“ It  is  well  written ; and  consists  of  many  narratives  of  intense  interest, 
and  highly  wrought  description.” — New-York  Mercantile  Advertiser. 

4 It  is  a faithful  narrative  of  the  hero  of  Trafalgar,  and  paints  his 
character  with  much  force,  and  in  its  true  colouring.  We  consider  this 
number  a valuable  gem  in  the  Family  Library.” — Truth  Teller. 

‘The  publishers  intend  to  incorporate  some  works  of  an  American 
character,  which  will  greatly  augment  the  value  of  their  edition  of  the 
Library.  This  last  improvement  is  all  that  is  wanting  to  make  this  work 
one  of  the  most  valuable  miscellaneous  publications  that  ever  issued  from 
the  press.” — New-York  American. 


[2] 


L.IFE  OF  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT,  By  Rev 
J.  Williams.  With  a Map.  18mo. 

“The  style  is  good,  and  the  narrative  well  conducted.  A modem 
history  of  this  famous  warrior  cannot  fail  to  be  entertaining.” — New- 
York  Daily  Advertiser. 

“ The  work  is  instructing,  and  inherits  a greater  shave  of  interest  from 
the  fact,  that  the  history  of  this  ancient  Napoleon  is  disintegrated  from 
the  mass  of  general  history,  and  presented  by  itself.  The  style  is  lucid 
and  well  studied.” — New- York  Journal  of  Commerce. 

“ The  fourth  work  included  in  this  collection  is  a life  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  written  by  the  Rev.  John  Williams,  (of  Baloil  College,  Oxford,) 
the  well-known  founder  and  head  of  the  New  Edinburgh  Academy,  and 
written  in  a manner  worthy  of  his  high  scholastic  reputation.  He  has 
displayed  fblicitously  in  this  volume  both  the  natural  and  acquired  en- 
dowments of  his  mind — filled  a blank  in  the  historical  library,  furnished 
the  schoolmaster,  and  also  the  schoolboy,  whether  at  home  or  abroad, 
with  a capital  manual — and  there  will  never  be,  in  as  far  as  we  can  see, 
the  smallest  occasion  for  writing  this  story  over  again.” — Blackwood. 

“ This  constitutes  the  seventh  volume  of  the  Family  Library.  It  is 
incomparably  the  best  life— the  most  careful  and  correct  estimate  of 
Alexander’s  achievements  we  have.” — Monthly  Magazine. 

“*rhis  is  a much  better  book  than  any  other  in  English  on  the  same 
subject.” — Athenaeum. 

“ It  is  ably  and  eloquently  written.” — B.  Journal. 

“ We  have  repeatedly  borne  testimony  to  the  utility  of  this  Library.  It  is 
one  of  the  best  that  has  ever  been  issued  from  the  American  press,  and 
should  be  in  the  library  of  every  family  desirous  of  treasuring  up  useful 
k no wledge .” — Boston  Statesm an. 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  INSECTS.  Illustrated!  by 
numerous  Engravings.  182 mo. 

“ Of  all  studies,  perhaps  there  is  none  more  captivating  than  that  of 
animated  nature The  present  volume  is  peculiarly  useful  and  agree- 

able.”— New-  York  Mirror. 

“ The  subject  is  full  of  interest  and  satisfaction,  and  is  adapted  to  all 
classes  of  readers.” — Albany  Evening  Journal. 

“ The  information  is  minute,  well  arranged,  and  clearly  imparted,  and 
cannot  but  recommend  the  work  to  general  perusal  in  families.” — New- 
York  Standard. 

“ It  is  the  duty  of  every  person  having  a family  to  put  this  excellent 
Library  into  the  hands  of  his  children.” — N.  Y.  Mercantile  Advertiser. 

“ It  seems  to  us,  that  it  will  prove  at  once  agreeable  and  instructive  to 
persons  of  all  classes,  and  occupy  an  appropriate  place  in  the  Family 
Library.”—  N.  Y.  Daily  Advertiser. 

“ The  study  of  animated  nature,  in  itself  pleasing,  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary as  a branch  of  usellil  knowledge.  In  the  present  work  the  subject 
is  treated  with  peculiar  adroitness,  and  contains  only  such  details  as 
render  the  study  of  Natural  History  amusing,  and  at  the  same  time  highly 
instructive.  This  volume,  we  should  conceive,  would  be  highly  advanta- 
geous for  the  use  of  schools ; and  we  recommend  its  being  placed  in  every 
one’s  library,  as  a work  full  of  useful  information.” — Truth  Teller. 

“ The  History  of  Insects  is  a curious  one.  Many  of  the  details  are 
wonderful  and  full  of  interest.” — Philadelphia  Inquirer. 

“This  work  must  prove  useful  and  interesting  to  all  classes.” 

Albany  Daily  Advertiser. 


[3] 


LIFE  OF  LORD  BYRON.  By  John  Galt,  Esq.  18mo. 

“ This  volume  has  great  merit,  and  is  a valuable  acquisition  to  litera- 
ture.”— New- York  Spectator. 

“The  sprightly  pen  of  the  author  has  communicated  uncommon  .inter- 
est to  this  work,  and  he  appears  to  have  done  perfect  justice  to  its  inspired 
subject.” — Albany  Daily  Advertiser. 

“ The  subject  is  one  of  very  great  interest,  which  is  of  course  enhanced 
by  the  reputation  of  the  writer.” — Baltimore.  Republican. 

“ Mr.  Galt  is  one  of  the  most  fascinating  writers  of  the  age.” — Journal 
of  Commerce. 

“ The  work  is  well  written,  and  gives  many  particulars  in  the  career 
of  the  gifted  bard  which  we  never  before  met  with  in  print.” — Pennsyl- 
vania Inquirer. 

“ It  is  the  work  of  one  of  the  most  sprightly  and  popular  writers  of  the 
day,  and  has  the  advantage  of  being  comprised  in  the  moderate  compass 
of  a single  volume.” — Evening  Post. 

“ Mr.  Galt  is  in  the  habit  of  eliciting  the  truth  from  whatever  he  under- 
takes to  consider  or  develop.  So  much  of  the  exact  truth,  in  respect  to 
Byron,  was  never  before  discovered,  collected,  and  set  down,  as  we  find 
in  this  very  interesting  volume.”— -C.  Journal. 

“ Galt  is  a powerful  writer.  His  critical  abilities  and  the  rare  oppor- 
tunity which  he  enjoyed  of  reading  the  heart-secrets  of  the  mysterious 
poet  give  an  undoubted  value  to  this  history.” — Neiv-York  Cabiket. 

“ This  volume  contains,  in  a concise  but  interesting  form,  a Memoir  of 
the  Life  and  Literary  Labours  of  Lord  Byron,  by  Mr.  Galt ; whose  classic 
pen  imparts  interest  and  value  to  every  thing  it  touches.” — Albany  Eve- 
ning Journal. 

“Mr.  Galt  is  well  and  favourably  known  as  a writer.” — Mercantile 
Advertiser. 


LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED,  Founder  of  tlie  Religion  of 

Islam  and  of  tlie  Empire  of  tlie  Saracens.  By  tlie 

Rev.  George  Bush,  M.  A.  Witli  a plate.  ISmo. 

“ It  seems  to  us  to  be  a good  narrative  of  the  life  of  the  great  Arabian 
impostor,  written  in  a fine  style.  . . . We  are  not  aware  that  any  other 
work  of  the  same  size  contains  the  same  quantity  of  information  relative 
to  the  matters  treated  of,  in  as  agreeable  a form.” — Com.  Advertiser. 

“ We  have  so  often  recommended  this  enterprising  and  useful  publica- 
tion (the  Family  Library),  that  we  can  here  only  add,  that  each  succes- 
sive number  appears  to  confirm  its  merited  popularity.” — N.  Y.  American. 

“ This  volume  embraces  a portion  of  history  extremely  interesting  to 
the  reader ; and  the  work  well  deserves  a nlace  among  the  others  com- 
posing the  valuable  series  of  the  Family  Library.”—  Evening  Journal. 

“ The  Family  Library  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  person.  Thus 
far  it  has  treated  of  subjects  interesting  to  all,  condensed  in  a perspicu- 
ous and  agreeable  style.”— Courier  Sr  Enquirer. 

“Mr.  Bush  is  a scholar  of  extensive  acquirements,  and  well  fitted  for 
the  task  which  he  has  undertaken  in  this  volume.”— N.  Y.  Observer. 

“ In  the  collection  of  materials,  the  author  appears  to  have  neglected 
no  source  from  which  valuable  aid  was  to  be  expected.”— Philadelphia 
Daily  Chronicle. 

“The  history  of  the  eminent  impostor  cannot  but  be  a work  of  interest 
to  every  enlightened  mind.” — Penn.  Inquirer. 

“ We  have  found  much  to  admire  and  commend  in  every  preceding 
number  of  the  Family  Library  ; but  we  believe  the  present  will  be  allowed 
the  place  of  honour.” — U.  S.  Gazette. 


t^] 


DEMONOLOGY  AND  WITCHCRAFT,  By  Walter 
Scott,  Bart*  18  mo.  Witli  a plate, 

“ The  work  is  carious,  interesting,  and  instructive.” — Inquirer. 

“ This  volume  is  most  interesting,  and  will  be  read  with  great  pleasure 
by  almost  every  Class  of  readers.” — U.  S.  Gazette. 

‘‘It  yvould  be  difficult  to  select  a more  interesting  subject  for  the  pen 
of  a man  of  genius  than  that  of  popular  superstitions.  To  say  that  Scott 
has  made  more  of  it  than  any  other  man  could  have  done,  is  only  to  add 
another  tribute  to  his  acknowledged  pre-eminence.” — Boston  Statesman. 

“ Tne  subject  i3  most  alluring,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  handled 
is  magical,”— Athenaeum. 

“One  of  the  most  useful,  and  certainly  one  of  the  most  amusing,  in  the 
Family  Library.” — Courier. 

“The  subject,  is  one  in  which  Sir  Walter  is  perfectly  at  home,  and  is 
handled  with  that  tact  and  ability  so  peculiarly  his  own  .‘—Globe. 

“ We  must  leave  this  delightful  volume  to  the  delightful  admiration 
which  it  will  obtain,  and  to  that  consequent  * parlour  window’  immor- 
tality which  it-will  command  more  surely  and  deservedly  than  any  other, 
of  the  writer’s  works.” — C.  Journal. 

“All  the  volumes  of  this  interesting  and  useful  Library  should  be  in 
the  hands  of  our  youth,  as  they  wiil  gain  much  knowledge  and  instruc- 
tion from  their  perusal.  They  peculiarly  fit  the  mind  for  a more  exten- 
sive entry  oh  the  subjects  of  which  they  treat,  at  a more  mature  period 
of  life.”— IV.  Y.  Evening  Journal. 

“This  work  will  be  sought  for  with'avidity.” — N.  Y.  Standard. 

“ It  is  a delightful  publication.” — Truth  Teller. 

“It  hazards  little  to  predict  that  this  volume  will  prove  the  most  popu- 
lar that  has  yet  been  put  forth  for  the  public  amusement  and  instruction.” 

Spectator. 


HiSTORY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  By  Rev,  G.  R.  Glcig. 

In  2 vols,  18mo.  Witli  a Map. 

“The  style  of  it  is  surpassed  by  no  work  with  which  we  are  ac- 
quainted : it  is  highly  finished,  perspicuous  and  comprehensive.  His- 
torical and  biographical  facts  are  well  stated  ; the  prominent  difficulties 
that  present  themselves  to  the  mind  of  an  intelligent  or  skeptical  reader 
of  the  Bible,  are  boldly  exhibited  and  ably  explained  ; the  most  plausible 
objections  advanced  by  modern  infidels  are  answered  in  a very  philo- 
sophical, learned,  and  conclusive  manner.  Tiie  author  has  unbodied  in 
it  avast  deal  of  learning  and  research;  has  discovered  superior  ingenuity 
and  force  of  intellect,  and  furnished,  withal,  a specimen  of  fine  writing, 
which  must  secure  a most  favourable  reception,  as  well  among  persons 
of  taste,  as  those  who  are  fond  of  Biblical  studies.  A valuable  introduc- 
tion is  prefixed  to  the  work,  showing  the  divine  authority  and  authen- 
ticity of  the  Sacred  Volume.” — Albany  Telegraph  >$■  Register. 

“ Mr.  Gleig’s  plan  is  very  comprehensive,  and,  judging  from  the  speci- 
men before  us,  we  are  persuaded  that  it  will  prove  fully  satisfactory 
to  a Christian  people.  In  his  inquiries  and  criticisms,  as  well  as  in 
his  suggestions  and  speculations,  Mr.  Gleig  is  free  and  independent. 
But  he  never  forgets  that  it  is  the  Bible,  the  Book  of  Heaven,  he  has 
undertaken  to  elucidate.” — New  Monthly  Magazine. 

“The  Rev.  author  is  one  of  the  very  best  writers  of  the  day.  He  has 
expended  a great  deal  of  labour  and  research  upon  his  subject,  and  has 
succeeded  in  giving  a connected,  faithful,  and  succinct  outline  of  the 
contents  of  the  Sacred  Volume,  and  in  vindicating  its^statements  from 
the  objections  of  skepticism  and  false  philosophy.” — American  Traveller , 


5 


POIiAR  SEAS  AND  REGIONS.  By  Professors  Leslie 

and  Jameson  and  Hugh  Murray,  Esq.  18 mo.  With 

Maps  and  Engravings. 

“ The  style  is  familiar,  concise,  and  comprehensive.  The  authors  are 
excellent  models  for  modern  historians.” — Albany  Evening  Journal. 

“ A work  from  such  hands  on  such  a subject  cannot  fail  to  be  both 
interesting  and  valuable.” — N.  Y.  Evening  Post. 

“The  three  eminent  men  who  have  produced  this  compilation  have 
rendered  a great  service  to  the  cause  of  philosophy  and  knowledge.” — 
New- York  Commercial  Advertiser. 

“ The  writers  are  gentlemen  of  first-rate  standing  in  the  scientific  world, 
and  the  subject  is  one  to  which  every  curious  mind  is  attached  by  a sort 
of  involuntary  impulse.” — N.  Y.  Journal  of  Commerce. 

“ It  is  well  calculated  for  seamen  and  landsmen,  the  learned  and  unin- 
formed, and  for  both  sexes  of  every  age.” — American  Traveller. 

“ This  volume  is  replete  with  interest ; it  exhibits  a succinct,  yet  com- 
plete and  connected  view  of  the  successive  voyages  made  to  the  Arctic 
Regions.” — Monthly  Repository. 

“ This  volume  presents  an  exceedingly  entertaining  and  instructive  view 
of  all  that  is  known  of  the  Polar  Seas  and  Regions.” — Philadel.  Chronicle. 

“The  volume  now  before  us  not  only  enters  into  an  account  of  the 
climate,  the  animal  and  vegetable  productions,  the  geology  of  the  Polar 
Regions,  and  the  details  of  the  whale  fishery;,  but  present's  the  public 
with  highly  interesting’ accounts  of  the  ancient  voyages  to  the  North, 
the -early  as  we’l  as  the  more  recent  voyages  in  search  of  the  North-East 
and  North-West  Passages,  together  with  the  late  voyages  directly  towards 
the  North  Pole.” — New  Monthly  Magazine. 

“We  recommend  this  entertaining  volume.” — Truth  Teller. 

“ We  are  of  opinion  that  this  will  prove  one  of  the  most  popular  num- 
bers of  this  justly  popular  work.” — Courier  6-  Enquirer.  • 


LIFE  AND  TIMES  OF  GEORGE  IV.  With  Aiiec* 

dotes  of  Distisiguisiied  Persons.  By  the  Rev.  George 

Crcly.  With  a Portrait.  18 mo. 

“ Mr.  Croly  hus  acquitted  himself  very  handsomely.  His  subject  is 
one  cf  much  interest,  and  he  has  treated  it  with  unusual  impartiality. 
The  author's  style  is  chaste,  classical,  and  beautiful,  and  it  may  be  taken 
as  a model  of  fine  writing.  It  is  worthy  of  his  genius  and  his  educa- 
tion.”— Mercantile  Advertiser. 

“ This  number  isfrom  the  eloquent  and  powerful  pen  of  the  Rev.  George 
Croly.  It  promises  much  entertainment  and  instruction.  The  name  of 
the  writer  is  a sufficient  passport  to  the  public  attention.” — Com.  Adv. 

“This  is  an  interesting  volume,  blending  most  beautifully  instruction 
with  amusement.” — Lpng  Jsihnd  Patriot. 

“ Mi.  Croly  is  a man  cf  talent , and  can  write  well.  There  is  proof  of 
this  in  the  volume  before  us.  The  reflections  that  naturally  arise  out 
of  the  subject  are  philosophical  and  just ; and  the  sketches  of  character 
of  the  leading  men  and  ministers  are  drawn  with  a bold  and  vigorous 
hand.” — The  Athenaeum. 

“The  portraits  of  the  Prince’s  friends  are  in  the  best  style,  and 
sketched  with  impartial  freedom.  Fox,  Burke,  Sheridan,  Erskine,  Cur- 
ran were  of  the  splendid  galaxy,  and  the  characteristics  of  each  are  well 
preserved  in  Mr.  Croiy’s  pages.” — Gentleman’s  Magazine. 

“ Mr.  Croly  is  not  merely  a fine  writer,  but  a very  powerful  one.  His 
outline  is  as  bold  and  broad  as  his  colours  are  glowing.  lie  writes  like 
ft  mau  well  acquainted  with  his  subject.” — Eclectic  Review. 


DISCOVERY  AKD  ADVENTURE  IN  AFRICA.  By 

Professor  Jameson*  James  Wilson*  Esq.*  and  Hugh 

Murray,  Esq.  With,  a map  and  engravings.  18 mo. 

“The  names  of  the  distinguished  individuals  by.  whom  the  volume  has 
been  prepared,  offer  a sufficient  pledge  for  the  faithful  and  accomplished 
execution  of  the  work ; and  the  field  of  their  labours  is  one  of  almost  un- 
rivalled attraction  for  whatever  is  new,  strange,  or  mysterious  in  histo- 
rical narrative,  or  bold  and  perilous  in  adventurous  exploit.” — The  Atlas. 

“ From  what  we  have  read,  we  think  it  will  add  another  very  interest- 
ing and  useful  volume  to.  the  Family  Library.  This  work  we  believe 
will  be  interesting  to  every  class  of  readers,  especially  to  the  philanthro- 
pist and  Christian.” — N.  Y.  Evangelist. 

“ It  embraces  .the  whole  field  of  modern  travels  in  Africa,,  and,  like 
‘Polar  Seas  and  Regions,’ is  deserving  the  attention  of  every  one  who 
pretends  to  keep  pace  with  the  progress  of  science  and  discovery.” — Jour, 
of  Commerce. 

“ In  this  volume  is  comprised  much  useful  and  entertaining  knowledge 
concerning  a country  which  has  long  been  the  subject  of  vague  report 
and  conjecture  pthe  theatre  of  visionary  monsters,  and  the  scene  of  the 
most  extravagant  romance.” — N.  Y.  Standard. 

“ The  names  of  the  authors  will  satisfy  the  public  that  this  is  a work 
which  will  command  their . admiration  and  credence.  It  is  a sterling 
addition  to  that  most  excellent  series,  the  Family  Library.” — Albany 
Daily  Advertiser. 

“In  the  present  work  we  have  a perfect  history  of  the  discoveries 
which  have  been  attempted,  from  the  time  of  Herodotus  until  the  final 
attempt  of  Rend  Caille ; it  is  replete  with  interest.” — N.  Y.  Courier  <$• 
Enquirer. 


DIVES  OF  EMINENT  PAINTERS  AND  SCULP- 
TORS. By  Allan  Cvuxxiiiigliam*  Esq.  In  3 vols. 

18mo.  Willi  Fox-traits. 

“ We  advise,  all  those  of  our  readers  who  have  any  respect  for  our  re- 
commendation, to  read  these  three  volumes  from  beginning  to  end  ; and  we 
are  confident  of  the  thanks  of  such  «s  shall  be  induced  by  our  advice  te 
procure  for  themselves  so  great  an  enjoyment.” — N.  Y.  Mirror. 

“ We  would  recommend  these  volumes  as  being  replete  with  interest- 
ing incident  and  valuable  historical  matter.  They  are  worthy  of  a promi- 
nent place  in  the  library  of  the  scholar,  and  are  of  that  description  of 
works  which  may  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  younger  branches  of 
society,  with  the  assurance  that  they  will  impart  both  moral  and  intel- 
lectual improvement.” — Boston  Masonic  Mirror. 

“The  lives  of  distinguished  artists,  written  by  so  popular  an  author, 
can  hardly  fail  of  being  duly  appreciated  by  the  reading  community.”— 
N.  Y.  Constellation. 

“This  is  one  of  the  best  written  and  most  instructive  books  of  the 
series  to  which  it  belongs.” — N.  Y.  American. 

“ The  whole  narrative  is  of  a lively  and  alluring  kind,  flowing  m its 
language,  and  enriched  with  ceaseless  anecdote.” — N.  Y.  Atlas. 

“ The  lives  of  Hogarth,  <fcc.  furnish  a fund  of  entertaining  and  charac- 
teristic anecdote,  of  which  the  author  has  known  howto  avail  himself 
with  skill.” — N Y.  Evening  Post. 

“So  much  as  an  accomplished  author,  an  admirable  field  of  exertion, 
and  a beautiful  typography,  can  do  or  promise  for  a work,  so  much  we 
can  safely  accredit  to  the  volumes  before  us  ” — Journal  of  Commerce. 

' m 


HISTORY  OP  CHIVALRY  AND  THE  CRUSADES. 

By  G.  P.  R,  Jamesj  Esq.  With  an  Engraving. 

I8mo. 

“ The  present  volume  may  safely  be  pronounced  an  ornament  to  the 
literature  of  the  day,  and  Mr.  James  be  esteemed  a writer  of  great  clear- 
ness and  strength/’ — N.  Y.  Standard. 

“ The  author  of  this  work  has  done  the  public  a service,  which  we  think 
will  be  duly  appreciated.” — Christian  Herald. 

“The  period  of  the  world  to  which  this  history  relates  is  one  most 
interesting  to  readers  generally.” — N.  Y.  Mercantile  Advertiser. 

“A  more  interesting,  instructive,  and  amusing  volume  has  not  been 
laid  upon  our  table  for  many  a day.” — Boston  Statesman. 

“ Mr.  James  is  well  known  as  an  agreeable  writer ; and  the  subjects 
of  this  volume  are  such  as  can  scarcely  fail  to  prove  both  amusing  and 
interesting.” — N.  Y.  Daily  Advertiser. 

“ The  execution  of.  this  work  is.  like  the  rest  of  the  Family  Library, 
elegant.  The  subjects  of  no  little  interest ; and  those  who  have  read 
‘Richelieu’  and  ‘Darnley’  will  be  prepared  to  think  favourably  of  auy 
production  from  the  same  pen.” — Constellation. 

“ The  admirers  ofMr  James’speculiar  style  of  composition  as  exhibited 
in  his  powerful  productions  of  ‘Darnley,’  * Richelieu,’  ‘ De  L’Orme,’  &c. 
have  now  an  opportunity  to  witness  his  equally  successful  efforts  in 
another  department,  where  all  classes  of  readers  may  unite  in  commend- 
ing the  subject,  the  treatise,  and  the  author.” — American  Traveller. 

“ The  historical  details  embraced  in  this  volume  are  extremely  curious 
and  amusing and  the  accounts  of  ancient  customs  pertaining  to  the  vari- 
ous orders  of  knighthood  engaged  in  the  holy  wars,  furnish  much  pleasant 
reading,  as  well  as  food  for  contemplation  on  the  obsolete  follies  of  man- 
kind.”--^. Y.  Evening  Journal. 


LIFE  OF  MARY,  QAJEEN  OF  SCOTS.  By  H.  G. 

Bell,  Esq.  In  ‘A  vols.  18ino.  Witli  a Portrait. 

“ It  is  decidedly  the  most  interesting  account  we  have  ever  seen  of  that 
lovely  and  unfortunate  being.  We  have  always  felt  that  Mary  was  inno- 
cent of  the  great  crimes  charged  against  her  by  her  furious  and  deadly 
enemies ; but  our  understanding  was  never  before  convinced.  It  was 
with  a feeling  of  eager  joy,  that  we,  for  the  first  time  in  our  lives,  admit- 
ted the  full  conviction  of  her  innocence.  The  book  is  written  with  much 
candour.” — Massachusetts  Journal. 

“W3  find  it  imbued  with  all  the  interest  of  a romance,  without  de- 
stroying the  authenticity  of  the  history.  Mary  was  indeed  an  attractive 
subject  for  the  pen  of  a lively  and  gallant  writer.  In  such  hands,  her 
youth,  her  beauty,  her  station,  and  her  misfortunes  must  have  furnished 
admirable  themes  on  whieh  to  descant  and  wake  up  the  sympathies  of  the 
reader.” — Pennsylvania  Inquirer. 

“The  life  of  the  unfortunate  queen  is  a subject  of  strong  interest.”— 
Constellation. 

“ The  style  of  the  author  is  succiuct  and  clear,  and  is  a good  specimen 
of  historic  composition.” — Standard. 

“ The  reader  will  be  pleased  to  learn  that  the  life  of  Mary  has  been 
written  anew,  by  one  %vho  appears,  both  in  temper  and  talent,  extremely 
well  qualified  for  the  task.” — N.  Y.  Atlas. 

“ We  have  heretofore  made  extracts  from  this  work,  which  must  have 
given  our  readers  a favourable  opinion  of  the  merits  of  the  whole.  We 
have  no  difficulty  in  recommending  a subject  so  interesting  to  the  public.” 
— Albion. 


[8] 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  EGYPT.  By  the  Rev. 

M.  Russell)  IiLt.D.  Witli  a Map  and  Engravings. 

IS  mo. 

“ It  is  hardly  possible  to  imagine  a volume  of  more  various  interest  than 
this.” — Baltimore  American. 

“A  work  that  cannot  be  too  warmly  commended  to  the  reading  pub- 
lic.”— Providence  American. 

“ All  that  is  known  of  Egypt  is  condensed  into  this  history;  and  the 
readers  of  it  will  find  themselves  well  repaid  for  their  labour  and  money.” 
— New-Haven  Advertiser. 

“ This  volume  is  the  most  interesting,  as  well  as  the  most  valuable,  of 
the  numbers  yet  published.” — Long  Island  Star. 

“This  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  series  of  the  Family  Library.” 
— Badger’s  Weekly  Messenger. 

“ The  information  respecting  the  present  state  of  this  interesting  coun- 
try will  be  found  peculiarly  valuable.” — New- York.  Mirror. 

“ The  work  is  written  in  a very  happy  style,  and  presents  a mass  of 
knowledge  of  the  most  useful  and  instructive  character,  collected  together 
by  great  industry  and  research.” — Baltimore  Republican. 

“ We  think  the  writer  has  performed  his  task  with  a singular  degree  of 
ability  and  clearness.” — Tribune. 

“ This  is  a volume  of  great  interest.” — New-York  Standard. 

“ An  account  of  this  ancient  kingdom,  connected  as  it  is  with  events  of 
the  greatest  importance  both  in  sacred  and  profane  history,  cannot  fail  to 
be  interesting  to  every  person  who  has  a taste  for  this  species  of  know- 
ledge.”-— New-  York  Daily  Advertiser. 

“ This  work  is  fully  equal  to  any  that  have  appeared  in  the  Family  Li- 
brary, and  that  is  one  of  the  best  of  comolimenis  which  can  be  paid  it.” — 
Albany  Evening  Journal. 


HISTORY  OP  POLAND,  from  tlie  earliest  Period  to 

the  present  Time.  By  James  Fletcher,  Esq.  With 

a Portrait  of  Kosciusko.  ISmo. 

“ This  work  recommends  itself  to  public  notice  by  its  clear,  concise,  and 
impartial  history  of  a country  and  a people  for  whom  the  feelings  of  every 
lover  of  freedom  are  now  deeply  interested.” — N.  Y.  Atlas. 

“ Of  the  writer's  fairness  and  research  we  have  a very  good  opinion ; 
and  his  book  is  just  the  thing  that  is  wanted  at  the  present  moment.”— 
New-York  American. 

“ A more  acceptable  volume  than  this  could  not  be  presented  to  the 
public.” — Courier  >$*  Enquirer. 

“ A work  of  great  interest.” — Albion. 

“ No  work  has  for  a long  period  been  published  here  so  deserving  of 
praise  and  so  replete  with  interest.” — American  Traveller. 

“ The  history  is  well  written,  and  is  presented  in  a convenient  and  suc- 
cinct form.” — New-York  Standard. 

“ The  present  volume  will  prove,  we  think,  highly  acceptable  to  the 
public.” — Evening  Post. 

“ It  will  require  no  recommendations  to  induce  the  reading  community 
to  possess  themselves  at  once  of  this  valuable  and  authentic  work.” — 
New-York  Evening  Journal. 

“ It  will  be  found  an  exceedingly  interesting  work.” — Constellation. 

“It  treats  of  a country  and  a people  that  attract  at  this  moment  the 
attention  of  the  whole  world  ; and  here  there  is  not  an  individual  who  is 
not  interested  in  the  struggle  which  the  brave  Poles  are  now  engaged  in 
for  liberty  and  home.” — Mercantile  Advertiser. 


[9] 


jFiCtittous  Storks,  &c. 


ST.  VALENTINE'S  DAY:  or, TIIE 
FAIR  MAID  OF  PERTH.  By 
the  Author  of  “ Waverley.”  In  2 
vols.  12mo. 

TIIE  DOOM  OF  DEVORGOIL; 
and  AUCIIINDRANE.  By  the 
Author  of  *'  Waverley.”  12mo. 

ALMACK’S  REVISITED ; or.  HER- 
BERT MILTON.  A Novel.  In 
2 vols.  l2mo. 

YESTERDAY  IN  IRELAND.  A 
Novel.  In  2 vols.  12mo. 

WALDEGRAVE.  A Novel.  In  2 
vols  12mo. 

THE  ADVENTURES  of  a KING’S 
PAGE.  A Novel.  2 vols.  12mo. 

TALES  AND  SKETCHES.  By  a 
Country  Schoolmaster.  I2mo. 

SEPARATION.  A Novel.  By  La- 
dy Charlotte  Bu  ry,  Author  of 
“Flirtation.”  In  2 vols.  12mo. 

THE  EXCLUSIVES.  A Novel.  In 
2 vols.  12mo. 

LIFE  OF  MANSI E WAITCn,  TAI- 
LOR IN  DALKEITH.  12mo. 

THE  LOST  HEIR;  and  THE  PRE- 
DICTION. A Novel.  In  2 vols. 

THE  SUBALTERN’S  LOG-BOOK. 
A Novel.  In  2 vols.  12mo. 

FOSCARINI.  A Novel.  In  2 vols. 

HAJJI  BABA.  A Novel.  In  2 vols- 

POSTHUMOUS  PAPERS,  FACE- 
TIOUS AND  FANCIFUL,  12mo. 

API  Cl  AN  MORLELS.  A Comical 
Work.  With  Cuts.  12mo. 

STORIES  OF  A BRIDE.  In  2 
vols.  12mo. 

THE  SCHOOL  OF  FASHION.  A 
Novel.  In  2 vols.  12mo. 

RYBRENT  DE  CRUCE.  A Novel. 
In  2 vols.  12mo. 

THE  ENGLISH  AT  HOME.  A 
Novel.  In  2 vols.  12mo. 

THE  LAST  OF  THE  PLANT A- 
GENETS.  An  Historical  Ro- 
mance. In  2 vols.  12mo. 

TALES  OF  MILITARY  LIFE.  In 
2 vols.  12mo.  By  the  Author  of 
“the  Military  Sketch-Book.” 


STRATTON  HILL.  A Tale  of  the 
Civil  Wars.  In  2 vols.  12mo. 

PEACE  CAMPAIGNS  OF  A COR 
NET.  A Novel.  In  2 vols.  12mo. 

PRIVATE  LIFE.  A Novel.  In  2 
vols.  12mo. 

TALES  OF  THE  WEST.  2 vols 
12mo.  By  the  Author  of  “ Letters 
from  the  East.” 

THE  TUILERIES.  A Novel.  In 

2 vols.  12mo. 

ROMANCE  AND  REALITY.  A 
Novel.  By  L.  E.  L.  In  2 vols.l2mo. 

TIIE  ICING’S  SECRET.  A Novel. 
In  2 vols.  12mo 

JACQUELINE  OF  HOLLAND.  By 
T.  C.  Grattan,  Esq.  In  2 vols. 

ROXOBEL-  By  Mrs.  Sherwood. 
In  3 vols.  18mo. 

In  Press, 

HARPER’S  FAMILY  LIBRARY  — 
Of  this  work,  which  is  intended  tc 
combine  the  two  objects  of  instruc- 
tion and  amusement,  comprisiag 
as  much  entertaining  matter  as 
can  be  given  along  with  useful 
knowledge,  and  as  much  know- 
ledge as  can  be  conveyed  in  an 
amusing  form,  several  volumes 
are  already  published 

THE  LIBRARY  OF  SELECT 
NOVELS  —which  will  embrace  no 
works  but  such  as  have  received 
the  impress  of  general  appro- 
bation, or  have  been  written  by 
authors  of  established  character. 
Several  volumes  are  now  pubr 
lished.  See  Catalogue. 

DRAMATIC  LIBRARY— Being  se- 
lections from  popular  standard 
Dramatic  writers  ; illustrated  with 
Explanatory  Notes,  and  adapted 
to  Family  reading,  by  the  omis- 
sion of  all  exceptionable  passages. 
Several  voiumes  are  already  pub- 
lished. See  Catalogue. 

FAMILY  CLASSICAL  LIBRARY ; 
or  English  translations  of  the 
most  valuable  Greek  and  Latin 
Classics.  Several  volumes  are 
now  published.  See  Catalogue. 


WOR’-SS  OF  V1Q TXOSf. 


BULWER’S  NOVELS.  Printed  and 
bound  uniformly  in  sets  of  8 vol- 
umes—embracing  “Pelham,”  “the 
Disowned,”  “ Devereux,”  and 
“Paul  Clifford.” 

DARNLEY.  A Novel.  By  G.  P.  R. 
J a m ks  , Author  of  “ Richelieu.”  In 
2 vols.  12mo. 

DE  L’ORME.  A Novel.  By  the 
Author  of  “ Richelieu”  and  “ Darn- 
ley.”  2 vols.  12mo, 
HAVERHILL.  A Novel.  By  J.  A. 

JoNKs^lSsq.  In2vols.  12mo. 
TRAITS  OF  TRAVEL.  A Novel. 
In  2 vols.  I2mo.  By  T.  C.  Grat- 
tan, Author  of  “Highways  and 
Byways.” 

THE  HEIRESS  OF  BRUGES.  A 
Tale.  By  the  Author  of  “ High- 
ways and  Byways,”  “Traits  of 
Travel,”  &c.  2 yols.  12mo. 
MAXWELL.  A Novel.  By  the 
Author  of  “ Sayings  and  Doings.” 
2 vols.  12mo. 

LA WRIE  TODD ; OR,  THE  SET- 
TLERS IN  THE  WOODS.  By 
John  Galt,  Esq.  In  2 vols.  12mo. 
SOUTHENNAN.  A Novel.  In  2 
vols.  12mo.  By  the  Author  of 
‘.‘Lawrie  Todd,”  &c.  <fcc. 
WALTER  COLYTQiy.  A Tale. 
In  2 vols.  I2mo.  By  Horace 
Smith,  Author  of  “ Brambletye- 
House,”  “ Zillah,”  &c.  &c. 

THE  NEW  FOREST.  A Novel. 
In  2 vols.  12mo.  By  the  Author 
of  “ Brambletye-House,”  “ Zil- 
lah,” &c.  &c. 

THE  COLLEGIANS.  A Novel.  In 
2 vols.  12mo. 

THE  RIVALS.  A Novel.  By  the 
Author  of  “the  Collegians,”  &c. 
In  2 vols.  12mo. 

HUNGARIAN  TALES.  In  2 vols. 
12mo.  By  Mrs.  Gore,  Author  of 
“ the  Lettre  de  Cachet”  and  “ Ro- 
mances of  Real  Life.” 

ROMANCES  OF  REAL  LIFE.  In 
2 vols.  12mo. 

FRANCE,  IN  1829—30.  By  Lady 
Morgan.  In  2 vols.  12mo. 


COMING  OUT;  and  THE  FIELD 
OF  THE  FORTY  FOOTSTEPS. 
Novels.  By  Misses  Jane  and  An- 
na Maria  Porter.  In  3 vols. 
THE  BARONY.  A Novel.  In  2 
vols.  12mo.  By  Miss  Anna  Ma- 
ria Porter. 

CLOUDESLEY.  A Novel.  In  2 
vols.  12mo.  By  the  Author  of  “Ca- 
leb Williams,”  &c. 

SKETCHES  OF  IRISH  CHARAC- 
TER. By  Mrs.  Sarah  C.  Hall. 
THE  RIVALS  OF  ESTE ; and 
other  Poems.  By  James  G,  and 
Mary  E.  Brooks.  12mo. 
BEATRICE.  A Tale,  founded  on 
Facts.  By  Mrs.  HoFLANn.  In  2 
vols.  12mo. 

CONTRAST.  A Novel.  By  Regina 
Maria  Roche,  Author  of  “ the 
Children  of  the  Abbey,”  &e,  &c. 
In  2 vols.  12mo, 

THE  DENOUNCED.  A Novel.  In 
2 vols.  12ma.  By  the  Authors  of 
“ Tales  by  the  O’Hara  Family.” 
THE  OXONIANS.  A Novel.  In 
2 vols.  12mo.  By  the  Author  of 
“ the  Roud.” 

THE  COUNTRY  CURATE.  By 
the  Author  of  “ the  Subaltern.”  In 
2 vols.  12mo. 

ROMANCE  of  HISTORY.  France, 
In  2 vols.  12mo.  By  Leitcij 
Ritchie,  Esq. 

ROMANCE  of  HISTORY.  Spain. 
In  2 vols,  12mo.  By  Don  T.  De 
Truebat. 

THE  INCOGNITO ; or,  SINS  AND 
PECCADILLOES.  A Novel.  By 
the  Author  of  “ Romance  of  His- 
tory,” “ the  Castilian,”  &c. 

THE  TALBA.  A Novel.  By  Mrs, 
Bray,  Author  of  “ the  White 
Hoods,”  “ the  Protestant,”  &,c. 
STORIES  OF  WATERLOO,  AND 
OTHER  TALES.  In  2 vols. 
WAVERLEY  ; OR,  TIS  SIXTY 
YEARS  SINCE.  A Novel.  In  2 
vols.  12mo.  Revised,  corrected, 
and  enlarged  by  the  Author. 

DE  LISLE.  A Novel.  2 vols.  12mo. 


3U LWER’S  WOS.KS, 


PELHAM;  or,  THE  ADVENTURES  OF  A GEN- 
TLEMAN. A Novel.  In  2 vols.  12mo. 

“If  the  most  bnlliant  wit,  a narrative  whose  interest  never  flags,  and 
some  pictures  of  the  most  riveting  interest  can  make  a work  popular, 
1 Pelham’  will  be  as  first-rate  in  celebrity  as  it  is  in  excellence.  The 
scenes  are  laid  in  fashionable  life.” — Literary  Gazette. 

THE  DISOWNED.  A Novel.  In  2 vols.  12mo. 

“ We  have  examined  ‘ The  Disowned,’  and  find  it  fully  equal  in  plot, 
character,  and  description  to  * Pelham,’  and  vastly  more  philosophic  and 
reflecting.  It  is  by  far  the  most  intellectual  fiction  that  we  have  seen  for 
a long  time  ; and  in  it  may  be  found  some  of  the  finest  maxims,  and  from 
it  may  be  drawn  some  of  the  best  morals  for  the  guidance  of  the  human 
heart.” — The  Albion. 

DEVEREUX.  A Novel.  In  2 vols.  12rao. 

“ The  author  possesses  the  most  brilliant  qualifications  of  a successful 
novelist.  His  conception  of  character  is  exquisite ; his  descriptive  powers 
are  unequalled  ; he  has  wit,  pathos,  energy,  and  discrimination  in  an  emi- 
nent degree  ; and  he  is,  moreover,  a ripe  scholar.  In  one  particular  he  is 
not  surpassed  by  any  writer  of  the  present  or  of  any  other  day — we  mean 
the  faculty  of  imparting  deep  and  uncontrollable  interest  to  his  stories.” — 
New-  York  Mirror. 


PAUL  CLIFFORD.  A Novel.  In  2 vols.  12rao. 

“ ‘ Paul  Clifford’  is  the  most  original  of  all  Mr.  Bulwer’s  works,  and 
cannot  fail  to  add  largely  to  its  writer’s  reputation.  For  the  man  of  the 
world  it  contains  shrewdness  and  satire ; for  the  moralist  matter  of  deep 
thought,  and  for  the  young  all  the  interest  of  narrative  and  all  the  poetry 
of  feeling.” — The  Albion. 

FALKLAND.  A Novel.  12rao. 

“ In  the  powerful  description  of  intense  feeling  and  passion,  it  does  not 
fall  short  of  any  subsequent  work  of  the  same  author.”— New- York 
Monthly  Review. 

“ He  has  shown  the  rock  of  passion  which  has  produced  the  wreck  of 
character.  If  he  has  introduced  crime,  he  has  denounced  it ; if  a criminal, 
he  has  punished.”— N.  Y.  Cabinet  of  Religion,  <$-c.  July,  1830. 

THE  SIAMESE  TWINS.  l2mo. 

“ We  have  read  Bulwer’s  new  poem  with  close  attention  and  with 
much  pleasure.  It  is  worthy  of  the  reputation  of  the  author  of*  Pelham,’ 
and  has  passages  of  poetry  inferior  to  nothing  of  modern  times,  not  exclud- 
ing the  days  of  Byron.” — Pennsylvania  Inquirer. 

" Bulwer  does  not  write  trines  ...  It  is  a production  of  powerful  genius. 
The  work  is  well  worth  reading.”— N.  Y.  Daily  Sentinel. 


HARPER’S  FAMILY  LIBRARY, 


“ Books  that  you  may  carry  to  the  fire,  and  hold  readily  in  your  hand, 
are  the  most  useful  after  all.  A man  will  often  look  at  them , and  be 
tempted  to  go  on,  when  he  would  have  been  frig  htened  at  books  of  a larger 
size,  and  of  a more  erudite  appearance — 1>k.  Johnson. 


The  proprietors  of  the  Family  Library  feel  themselves  stimulated  to 
increased  exertions  by  the  distinguished  favour  with  which  it  has  already 
been  received. 

The  volumes  now  before  the  public  may  be  confidently  appealed  to 
as  proofs  of  zeal  on  the  part  of  the  publishers  to  present  to  their  readers 
a series  of  productions,  which,  as  they  are  connected,  not  with  ephemeral, 
but  with  permanent  subjects,  may,  years  hence  as  well  as  now,  be  con- 
sulted for  lively  amusement  as  well  as  solid  instruction. 

To  render  this  Library  still  more  worthy  of  patronage,  the  proprie- 
tors propose  incorporating  in  it  such  works  of  interest  and  value  as 
may  appear  in  the  various  Libraries  and  Miscellanies  now  preparing  in 
Europe,  particularly  the  “ National”  and  the  “ Edinburgh  Cabinet”  Libra- 
ries. All  these  productions,  as  they  emanate  from  the  press,  will  be 
submitted  to  a committee  of  literary  gentlemen  for  inspection  ; and  none 
will  be  reprinted  but  such  as  shall  be  found  calculated  to  sustain  the 
exalted  character  which  this  Library'  has  already  acquired. 

Several  well-known  authors  have  been  engaged  to  prepare  for  it  original 
works  of  an  American  character,  on  History',  Biography,  Travels,  &c  <Cc. 

Every  distinct  subject  will  in  general  be  comprehended  in  dUe  volume, 
or  at  most  in  three  volumes,  which  may  form  either  a portion  of  the 
series  or  a complete  work  by  itself ; and  each  volume  will  be  embellished 
wiih  appropriate  engravings. 

The  entire  series  will  be  the  production  of  authors  of  eminence,  who 
have  acquired  celebrity  by  their  literary  labours,  and  whose  names,  as 
they  appear  in  succession,  will  afford  the  surest  guarantee  to  the  public 
for  the  satisfactory  manner  in  which  the  subjects  will  be  treated. 

Such  is  the  plan  by  which  it  is  intended  to  form  an  American  Family 
Library,  comprising  all  that  is  valuable  in  those  branches  of  knowledge 
which  most  happily  unite  entertainment  with  instruction.  The  utmost 
care  will  be  taken,  not  only  to  exclude  whatever  can  have  an  injurious 
influence  on  the  mind,  but  to  embrace  everything  calculated  to  strengthen 
the  Dest  and  most  salutary  impressions. 

With  these  arrangements  and  facilities,  the  publishers  flatter  them- 
selves that  they  shall  be  able  to  present  to  their  fellow-citizens  a work 
of  unparalleled  merit  and  cheapness,  embracing  subjects  adapted  to  all 
classes  of  readers,  and  forming  a body  of  literature  deserving  the  praise 
of  having  instructed  many,  and  amused  all ; and  above  every  other  spe- 
cies of  eulogy,  of  being  fit  to  be  introduced,  without  reserve  or  exception, 
by  the  father  of  a family  to  the  domestic  circle.  Meanwhile,  the  very  low 
price  at  whi'-h  it  is  charged  renders  more  extensive  patronage  necessary 
for  its  support  and  prosecution.  Th&  immediate  encouragement,  there- 
fore, of  those  who  approve  its  plan  and  execution  is  respectfully  solicited 
The  work  may  be  obtained  in  complete  sets,  or  in  separate  numbers, 
from  the  principal  booksellers  throughout  the  United  States  . 


DRAMATIC  SERIES 

OP 

THE  FAMILY  LIBRARY. 


\KrTke  number  of  volumes  composing  the  “ Dramatic  Series”  will  bt 

limited , and  will  be  bound  and  numbered  in  such  a manner  as  to  render 

it  not  essentially  necessary  to  obtain  them  to  complete  sets  of  tae 

Family  Library .] 

The  Old  English  Dramatists,  the  friends  and  contemporaries  of  Shaks- 
peare,  have  contributed  one  of  the  most  valuable  portions  to  the  poetic 
literature  of  our  country.  But — abounding  as  they  do  in  wit  and  fancy, 
in  force  and  copiousness  of  expression,  in  truth  and  variety  of  character, 
in  rapid  change  of  incidents,  in  striking  and  interesting  situations,  and, 
above  all,  in  justice  and  elevation  of  sentiment — their  works  are  totally 
unknown  to  th*  generality  of  readers,  and  are  only  found  in  the  hands  of 
an  adventurous  few,  who  have  deviated  from  the  beaten  paths  of  study 
to  explore  for  themselves  less  familiar  and  exhausted  tracts  of  literary 
amusement.  The  neglect  of  these  authors,  in  an  age  so  favourable  to 
works  of  imagination  as  the  present,  can  only  be  ascribed  to  that  occa- 
sional coarseness  of  language  which  intermixes  with  and  pollutes  the 
beauty  of  their  most  exquisite  scenes. . . . Under  these  circumstances,  the 
editors  of  the  Family  Library  have  determined  on  publishing  a selection 
from  the  plays  of  Massinger,  Beaumont,  Fletcher,  Ford,  Shirley,  Webster, 
Middleton,  and  ethers,  omitting  all  such  scenes  and  passages  as  are  in- 
consistent with  tne  delicacy  and  refinement  of  modern  taste  and  manners. 
Whenever  it  is  possible,  the  play  will  be  printed  entire.  If  there  be  a 
double  plot,  the  one,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Virgin-Martyr,  eminently  beau- 
tiful, and  the  other  as  eminently  offensive,  the  living  beauty  will  be 
separated  from  Ihe  dead  weight  of  corruption  to  which  it  is  unnaturally 
joined,  and  be  presented  to  the  reader  in  a form  which  may  afford  an  un- 
mixed andtfowtng  enjoyment  to  his  imagination.  When  there  is  a radical 
evil  in  the  groundwork  of  the  play,  only  a single  act  or  a few  scenes  may 
be  given  ; but,  in  such  cases,. care  will  always  be  taken  to  preserve  the 
interest  of  an  entire  and  connected  story.  The  work  will  be  accompanied 
with  short  explanatory  notes,  and  occasional  critical  remarks. 

“ There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  works  of  those  dramatists  who 
flourished  in  the  time  of  Shakspeare  will  be  eagerly  purchased,  as  they 
are  very  much  warned  in  this  country.  Although  containing  the  essence 
of  poetry,  few  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic  are  acquainted  with  their  merits. 
It  is  singular  that  they  have  not  been  reprinted  here  t .ore.  A little 
of  the  solid  thought  and  laboured  composition  of  those  days  might  be 
advantageously  substituted  for  much  of  the  frippery  now  cut  down  into 
tedious  metre,  and  eked  out  with  forced  and  hackneyed  rhyme.” — N.  Y. 
Mirror. 

“ The  Dramatic  Series  of  the  Family  Library  has  been  planned  in  such 
a manner  as  to  promise  to  make  it  one  of  the  most  important  features  of 
that  admirable  collection.  Hitherto  there  has  been  scarcely  any  attempt, 
certainly  no  successful  one,  at  opening  the  immense  source  of  poetical 
treasure  which  is  to  be  found  in  the  works  of  those  dramatists  who 
flourished  contemporaneously  with  the  mightiest  of  them  all.  The  editor 
of  this  series  is  liberal  of  explanation  and  elucidation  too,  where  they  are 
called  for  by  any  obvious  difficulty  in  the  text.  Cases  of  obvious  neces- 
sity alone,  however,  obtain  his  interference;  he  supplies  the  requisite 
assistance  without  obtruding  it;  sometimes  from  his  own  resources,  at 
others  from  imoojectionable  authorities.” — Monthly  Review 


FAMILY  CLASSICAL  LIBRARY. 


To  those  who  are  desirous  of  obtaining  a knowledge  of  the  most  es- 
teemed authors  of  Greece  and  Rome,  but  possess  not  the  means  or  leisure 
for  pursuing  a regular  course  of  study,  the  present  undertaking  must  prove 
a valuable  acquisition. 

So  diversified  are  the'  objects  to  which  general  education  is  at  present 
directed,  that  sufficient  time  cannot  be  allowed,  in  most  instances,  to  lay 
the  foundation  of  an  adequate  acquaintance  with  the  most  popular  authors 
in  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages.  In  those  instances  even,  in  which  the 
object  Las  b<  en  attained,  where  the  taste  has  been  formed,  and  the  habit 
of  occasional  recurrence  to  the  Classics  has  been  preserved,  the  facility  of 
reference  to ’a  Series  of  correct  and  elegant  Ticmslations  must  afford 
pleasure,  and  occasional  assistance,  even  to  the  scholar.  To  him  who.  as 
Dr  Knox  observes,  although  engaged  in  other  pursuits,  is  still  anxious  to 
“ retain  a tincture  of  that  elegance  and  liberality  of  sentiment  which  the 
mind  acquires  by  the  study  of  the  Classics,  and  w hich  contributes  more  to 
form  the  true  gentleman  than  all  the  unsubstantial  ornaments  of  modern 
affectation,”  such  a collection  will,  it  is  confidently  hoped,  prove  accept- 
able. 

As  the  learned  languages  do  not  form  part  of  the  education  of  females, 
the  only  access  which  they  have  to  the  valuable  stores  of  antiquity  is 
through  the  medium  of  correct  translation. 

The  selection  is  intended  to'  include  those  authors  whose  works  may 
with  propriety  be  read  by  the  youth  of  both  sexes;  and  it  will  be  obvious 
that  the  nature  of  the  publication  is  of  so  permanent  a character,  as  to 
prove  equally  interesting  to  posterity  as  to  the  present  generation.  The 
whole  will  be  presented  to  the  public  in  a cheap,  handsome,  and  uniform 
size,  forming  a complete  “ Family  Classical  Library,”  alike  useful  for  the 
purpose  of  instruction  and  amusement.  Indeed,  as  Dr.  Park  says,  “if 
you  desire  your  son,  though  no  great  scholar,  to  read  and  reflect,  it  is 
your  duty  to  place  in  his  hands  the  best  translations  of  the  best  Classical 
Authors.” 

A Biographical  Sketch  will  be  prefixed  to  each  author;  and  notes  will 
he  added,  when  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  illustration.  Engravings  of 
the  authors,  and  Maps,  will  be  given  occasionally. 

The  importance  attached  in  the  present  day  to  translations  of  the  Classic 
authors,  may  be  estimated  by  the  fact,  that  a series  has  been  recently 
published  in  England,  and  also  in  France,  and  that  another  in  the  Russian 
language  is  nowin  pro  ress,  under  the  immediate  sanction  of  the  Imperial 
Government. 


AN  EPITOME  OF  ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 

Under  the  above  title  it  is  intended  to  publish,  in  a new  and  concen- 
trated form,  a series  of  Standard  English  Authors.  The  precise  nature  of 
the  plan  to  be  adopted  in  the  work  will  be  stated  hereafter, — for  the  present 
suffice  it  to  observe,  that  in  History  no  facts,  and  in  Philosophy  no  reason- 
ing will  be  omitted  or  distorted,  so  as  to  render  a reference  to  the  original 
author  requisite ; and  thus  persons  of  both  sexes  may  become  perfectly 
acquainted  with  authors  repulsive  from  bulk  alone,  at  a comparatively 
little  cost  of  time  as  w'ell  as  price.  The  series  will  be  confined  to  the 
popular  productions  of  writers  in  prase,— such  as  Burnet,  Clarendon, 
Gibbon,  Hume,  Robertson,  Bacon,  Locke,  Paley,  Addison,  Goldsmith, 
Johnson,  Swift,  <fcc.  &c.,  and  will  be  edited  by  A J.  Valpv,  M.  A. 

HARPER’S  FAMILY  LIBRARY.— See  Prospectus. 

LIBRARY  OF  SELECT  NOVELS.— See  Prospectus. 


LIBRARY  OF  SELECT  NOVELS. 

Fictitious  composition  is  now  admitted  to  form  an  extensive  and  im 
portant  portion  of  literature.  Well-wrought  novels  take  their  rank  by  the 
side  of  real  narratives,  and  are  appealed  to  as  evidence  in  all  questions 
concerning  man.  In  them  the  customs  of  countries,  the  transitions  and 
shades  of  character,  and  even  the  very  peculiarities  of  costume  and  dia- 
lect, are  curiously  preserved  ; and  the  imperishable  spirit  that  surrounds 
and  keeps  them  for  the  use  of  successive  generations  renders  the  rarities 
for  ever  fresh  and  green.  In  them  human  life  is  laid  down  as  on  a map. 
The  strong  and  vivid  exhibitions  of  passion  and  of  character  which  they 
furnish,  acquire  and  maintain  the  strongest  hold  upon  the  curiosity,  and, 
it  may  be  added,  the  affections  of  every  class  of  readers  ; for  not  only  is 
entertainment  in  all  the  various  moods  of  tragedy  and  comedy  provided  in 
their  pages,  but  he  who  reads  them  attentively  may  often  obtain,  without 
the  bitterness  and  danger  of  experience,  that  knowledge  of  his  fellow 
creatures  which  but  for  such  aid  could,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  be  only 
acquired  at  a period  of  life  too  late  to  turn  it  to  account. 

This  “ Library  of  Select  Novels”  will  embrace  none  but  such  as  have 
received  the  impress  of  general  approbation,  or  have  been  written  by 
authors  of  established  character ; and  the  publishers  hope  to  receive  such 
encouragement  from  the  public  patronage  as  will  enable  them  in  the 
course  of  time  to  produce  a series  of  works  of  uniform  appearance,  and 
including  most  of  the  really  valuable  novels  and  romances  that  have  been 
or  shall  be  issued  from  the  modern  English  and  American  press.  The 
store  from  which  they  are  at  liberty  to  choose  is  already  sufficiently  great 
to  ensure  them  against  any  want  of  good  material ; and  it  is  their  inten- 
tion to  make  such  arrangements  as  shall  warrant  the  public  confidence  in 
the  judgment  with  which  the  selection  will  be  made.  The  price,  too,  will 
be  so  moderate  as  to  make  the  work  accessible  to  almost  any  income ; and 
the  style  in  which  it  is  to  be  performed  will  render  it  a neat  and  con- 
venient addition  to  every  library. 

There  is  scarcely  any  question  connected  with  the  interests  of  literature 
which  has  been  more  thoroughly  discussed  and  investigated  than  that  of 
the  utility  or  evil  of  novel  reading.  In  its  favour  much  may  be  and  has 
been  said,  and  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  reasonings  of  those  who  be- 
lieve novels  to  be  injurious,  or  at  least  useless,  are  not  without  force  and 
plausibility.  Yet,  if  the  arguments  against  novels  are  closely  examined, 
it  will  be  found  that  they  are  more  applicable  in  general  to  excessive  in- 
dulgence in  the  pleasures  afforded  by  the  perusal  of  fictitious  adventures 
than  to  the  works  themselves ; and  that  the  evils  which  can  be  justly 
ascribed  to  them  arise  almost  exclusively,  not  from  any  peculiar  noxious 
qualities  that  can  be  fairly  attributed  to  novels  as  a species,  but  from  those 
individual  works  which  in  their  class  must  be  pronounced  to  be  indif- 
ferent. 

But  even  were  it  otherwise — were  novels  of  every  kind,  the  good  as 
well  as  the  bad,  the  striking  and  animated  not  less  than  the  puerile,  in- 
deed liable  to  the  charge  of  enfeebling  or  perverting  the  mind  ; and  were 
there  no  qualities  in  any  which  might  render  them  instructive  as  well  as 
amusing — the  universal  acceptation  which  they  have  ever  received,  and 
still  continue  to  receive,  from  all  ages  and  classes  of  men,  would  prove 
an  irresistible  incentive  to  their  production.  The  remonstrances  of  moral- 
ists and  the  reasonings  of  philosophy  have  ever  been,  and  will  still  be 
found,  unavailing  against  the  desire  to  partake  of  an  enjoyment  so  attrac- 
tive. Men  will  read  novels  ; and  therefore  the  utmost  that  wisdom  and 
philanthropy  can  do  is  to  cater  prudently  for  the  public  appetite,  and,  as  it 
is  hopeless  to  attempt  the  exclusion  of  fictitious  writings  from  the  shelves 
of  the  library,  to  see  that  they  are  encumbered  with  the  least  possible 
number  of  such  as  have  no  other  merit  than  that  of  novelty 


Cefceiy 


Harper’s  Stereotype  Edition . 


VIEW 


OF 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN 


AN  OUTLINE  OF  ITS  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


PUBLISHED  BY  J.  & J.  HARPER,  82  CLIFF-ST. 

Sold  by  Collins  & Hannay,  Collins  & Co.,  G.  & C.  & H.  Cnrvill,  White, 
Gallaher,  & White,  O.  A.  Roorbach,  Pendleton  & Hill,  E.  Bliss,  and 
C.  S.  Francis ; — Ai.ba.ny,  O.  Steele,  and  Little  & Cummings ; — Phila- 
delphia, John  Grigg,  Towar  <fe  Hogan,  E.  L.  Carey  <fc  A.  Hart,  and 
T.  Desilver,  jr. ; — Boston,  Richardson,  Lord.  & Holbrook,  Carter, 
Hcndee,  & Babcock  ; — Baltimore,  W.  & J.  Neal,  J.  Jewett,  Cushing 
& Sons,  M‘Dowell  & Son,  J.  Robinson,  E.  J.  Coale,  amd  P.  N.  Wood 


G YP  T; 


WITH 


BY  THE 


REV.  MICHAEL  RUSSELL,  LL.D. 


WITH  A MAP  AND  ENGRAVINGS. 


NEW-YORK : 


1831 


PREFACE. 


The  object  of  this  volume  is  to  present  to  the 
reader,  in  a condensed  form,  an  account  of  all  that 
is  known  respecting  Egypt,  both  in  its  ancient  and 
in  its  modern  state.  The  history  alone  of  such  a 
country  could  not  fail  to  be  highly  interesting  to 
every  one  who  has  any  curiosity  to  mark  the  pro- 
gress of  the  human  race  in  civilization  and  learn- 
ing, and  mor-e  especially  the  beginnings  of  society 
at  that  earliest  period  to  which  the  writings  of  un- 
inspired annalists  carry  back  the  mind  of  the  con- 
templative student.  It  has  indeed  been  our  main 
endeavour  to  represent  the  genius  and  astonishing 
acquirements  of  the  old  Egyptians  through  the 
medium  of  the  great  works  of  architecture,  statuary, 
and  sculpture,  which  are  still  to  be  found  on  the 
banks  of  the  Nile.  In  this  part  of  our  undertaking 
we  have  spared  no  pains  to  illustrate  the  descrip- 
tions of  the  Grecian,  Roman,  and  Arabian  histo- 
rians, by  a reference  to  the  actual  condition  of  that 
singular  country  in  our  own  times  ; attempting  by 
these  means  to  supply  to  the  reader  of  Herodotus, 
Diodorus  Siculus,  Strabo,  Pliny,  and  Abdollatiph,  a 
light  reflected  from  the  ruins  of  those  splendid 
monuments  which  they  were  the  first  to  make  known 
to  the  great  body  of  their  less-informed  contem- 
poraries. 


4 


PREFACE. 


However  dark  may  be  the  cloud  which  still 
hangs  over  the  more  ancient  portion  of  Egyptian 
history,  it  is  much  less  obscure  than  it  was  thirty 
years  ago.  The  united  exertions  of  travellers 
abroad,  and  of  learned  men  at  home,  since  the  be- 
ginning of  the  present  century,  have  contributed 
not  a little  towards  removing  the  perplexity  which 
was  wont  to  beset  the  historian  and  chronologer  at 
the  very  threshold  of  their  inquiries.  The  labours 
of  Dr.  Young  and  of  M.  Champollion  have  opened 
up  a path  by  which,  there  is  great  reason  to  hope, 
the  research  of  modern  authors  will  be  enabled  to 
penetrate  into  those  remote  ages  which  preceded 
the  Persian  conquest,  and  which  it  has  too  long 
been  the  fashion  to  consign  to  mysticism  and  fable. 
Without  permitting  ourselves  to  yield  to  an  undue 
confidence  in  regard  to  the  discoveries  which  are 
said  to  have  been  made  since  the  comparatively 
recent  period  when  the  language  of  hieroglyphics 
was  supplied  with  a key,  we  may  nevertheless 
cherish  the  expectation  that  the  light  which  has 
been  already  thrown  on  the  dynasties  of  the  ancient 
kings  of  Egypt  will  increase  hereafter  into  a much 
greater  degree  of  brightness.  It  was  not  the  least 
pleasant  part  of  our  task  to  trace  the  steps  of  that 
arduous  investigation  which  finally  led  to  the 
knowledge  of  Phonetic  hieroglyphics ; one  of  the 
most  valuable  additions  made  to  literature  in  mod- 
ern times. 

The  reader  will  find  that  we  have  not  neglected 
any  source  of  information  in  respect  to  the  learning 
and  science  of  the  Egyptians,  and  more  especially 
as  these  are  in  any  way  connected  with  the  me- 
chanical labours,  the  arts,  or  the  political  govern- 


PREFACE. 


5 


ment  which  distinguished  the  first  ages  of  their 
history.  It  was  our  intention  to  have  included  an 
account  of  Nubia  and  Abyssinia  in  the  narrative 
now  submitted  to  the  public ; but  we  soon  discov- 
ered that  the  interesting  notices  which  are  daily- 
reaching  this  kingdom  relative  to  the  improvements 
introduced  by  Mohammed  Ali,  the  present  viceroy 
of  Egypt,  and  the  important  changes  which  he  still 
appears  to  meditate,  would  necessarily  prevent  the 
accomplishment  of  so  extended  a plan.  Hence  it 
has  been  determined  to  reserve  a full  and  method- 
ical description  of  those  vast  countries  for  a future 
volume  of  the  Library. 

In  collecting  materials  for  the  history  of  modern 
Egypt,  we  placed  the  greatest  reliance  on  the 
works  of  such  writers  as  had  lived  some  time  in 
the  country,  and  had  thereby  an  opportunity  not 
only  of  marking  the  progress  of  events  under  the 
extraordinary  man  who  for  more  than  twenty  years 
has  directed  the  government,  but  also  of  comparing 
the  actual  condition  of  the  inhabitants  with  the  op- 
pression and  barbarism  from  which  they  have  grad- 
ually emerged.  In  this  point  of  view  the  successive 
communications  of  Mr.  Salt  are  extremely  valua- 
ble ; as  are  also  several  notices  which  have  been 
received  in  this  country  through  the  medium  of 
France.  Among  these  last  a distinguished  place 
is  due  to  the  “Histoire  de  la  Regeneration  de 
l’Egypte,”  written  in  the  form  of  letters  by  Jules 
Planat,  a staff-officer  in  the  service  of  the  pasha. 

The  reader  may  be  surprised,  that  in  describing 
the  manners  and  customs  of  the  modern  Egyptians, 
we  have  not  taken  any  notice  of  a volume  by  the 
late  Mr.  Burckhardt  on  this  very  subject.  Suffice 


6 


PREFACE. 


it  to  observe  that  the  work  in  question  is  simply  a 
collection  of  Arabic  proverbs,  which  illustrate  the 
sentiments  of  the  people  rather  than  their  customs 
or  manners,  and  was  therefore  altogether  unsuitable 
for  the  purpose  which  we  had  in  view. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  remark  that  the  chapter  on 
Natural  History  is  meant  entirely  for  popular  use, 
and  has  no  claims  to  scientific  precision  either  in 
the  description  or  arrangement.  Besides,  as  the 
sixteenth  volume  of  this  Library  contains  a full 
view  of  the  Geology  and  Animal  Kingdom  of  Af- 
rica, contributed  by  two  able  writers,  we  have  in- 
tentionally limited  our  survey  to  such  objects  as 
are  peculiar  to  the  Egyptian  valley  and  to  the 
rocky  barrier  by  which  it  is  bounded. 

Edinburgh,  April,  3 830. 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


The  American  publishers  of  this  volume,  while 
they  acknowledge  the  general  accuracy  of  the 
author’s  statements,  and  the  clearness  and  interest- 
ing nature  of  the  information  he  has  laboriously 
collected  from  so  many  sources,  feel  themselves 
obliged  to  enter  their  protest  against  the  disparaging 
and,  in  their  opinion,  unjust  remarks  with  which  it 
is  interspersed,  reflecting  upon  the  scientific  French- 
men who  accompanied  Napoleon’s  expedition  to 
Egypt : the  reverend  author  has  not,  in  their  judg- 
ment, done  justice  either  to  the  efforts  of  those 
gentlemen,  or  to  their  success.  It  may  be  true 
that  much  was  not  accomplished  which  might  have 
been  expected  from  the  magnitude  and  complete- 
ness of  their  preparations  and  appointments ; but 
it  is  to  be  remembered  that  their  time  to  investi- 
gate and  explore  was  too  often  lamentably  abridged, 
by  the  necessity  under  which  they  laboured  of  ac- 
companying the  rapid  movements  of  the  army: 
and  no  unprejudiced  man  will  or  can  deny  that  the 
results  of  their  exertions  were  highly  important, 
and  very  honourable  to  themselves,  when  fairly 
estimated  with  a reasonable  consideration  for  the 
difficulties  and  embarrassments  with  which  they 
had  to  contend. 

New-York,  August,  1831. 


C ONTENTS, 


CHAPTER  L 

INTRODUCTION. 

Importance  of  Egyptian  Antiquities — Egypt  an  old  Country  in  the 
Infant  Age  of  Greece — Thebes  famous  in  the  Days  of  Homer — Learn- 
ing and  Science  of  Europe  derived  from  Egypt  through  Phenicia  and 
Greece — Inquiry  into  the  Source  of  Egyptian  Learning  and  Civilization 
— The  early  Improvement  of  Nubia  and  Abyssinia — Resemblance 
between  the  Religion,  the  Symbols,  and  Architecture  of  India  and  of 
- Egypt — Anecdote  of  the  Sepoys  in  the  British  Army — Remarks  on  the 
Temples  in  both  Countries — A similar  Resemblance  between  the 
Egyptians  and  Chinese — All  primitive  Tribes  derived  their  Know- 
ledge from  the  same  Source — Institution  of  Castes  in  Egypt  and  India 
— Statements  of  Herodotus  and  Diodorus  on  that  Subject — Probability 
that  Civilization  and  the  Arts  descended  the  Nile — Contrast  between 
their  advanced  Knowledge  and  their  debased  Worship— Reflection  on 
the  Importance  attached  to  the  durable  Nature  of  Architectural  Monu- 
ments  Page  17 


CHAPTER  n. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  EGYPT. 

General  Description  of  Egypt — Origin  of  the  Name — Opinions  of  the 
Ancients— Egypt  the  Gift  of  the  Nile— Depth  of  the  Soii — Attempts  to 
ascertain  the  mean  Rate  of  Deposition — Opinions  of  Shaw,  Savary, 
Yolney,  and  Bruce — Speculations  of  the  French  Philosophers — Proof 
that  Egypt  has  acquired  an  Elevation  of  Surface — Fear  of  Dr.  Shaw 
in  regard  to  the  eventual  Sterility  of  the  Land — Constancy  of  the 
Inundations — Frauds  by  the  Government — Qualities  of  the  Water — 
Analysis  of  the  Mud — Accident  witnessed  by  Belzoni — Seasons  in 
Egypt — Heat — Infrequency  of  Rain — The  Winds,  Simoom — The  Po- 
litical Geography  of  Egypt— Mouths  of  the  Nile — Natron  Lakes — 
Waterless  River Page  26 


CHAPTER  IIL 

CIVU^  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT. 

Obscurity  of  Egyptian  Annals — Variety  of  Hypotheses — Reign  of  Menes 
determined;  his  Actions — Account  of  Osymandias;  his  Palace  and 
Tomb — Chronological  Tables — Invasion  of  the  Shepherds — Quotation 

» B 


12 


CONTENTS, 


from  Manetho— Mistake  as  to  the  Israelites — Indian  Tradition  in 
regard  to  the  Conquest  of  Egypt  by  Pastoral  Chiefs — The  Origin  of 
the  Pyramids — Hatred  of  Shepherds  entertained  by  the  Egyptians  in 
time  of  Joseph — The  Reign  of  Mceris — Accession  of  Sesostris ; his 
Exploits  ; Proofs  of  his  warlike  Expedition  ; the  Magnificence  of  his 
Buildings ; his  Epitaph — Invasion  by  Sabaeo  the  Ethiopian  or  Abys- 
sinian—By  Sennacherib— By  Nebuchadnezzar — By  Cyrus— And  com- 
plete Subjugation  by  Cambyses — The  Persian  Government — Conquest 
of  Egypt  by  Alexander  the  Great — Ancient  Dynasties — The  Ptolemies — 
The  Romans — The  Saracens Page  48 

CHAPTER  IV. 

MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF  TfiE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 

The  Magnitude  of  Egyptian  Edifices  —Their  supposed  Object  connected 
with  the  Doctrine  of  the  Metempsychosis — Proposal  made  to  Alex- 
ander the  Great— Lake  Mceris;  its  Extent— The  Narrative  of  Herodo- 
tus ; supported  by  Diodorus  and  Pomponius  Mela — Opinion  that  the 
Nile  originally  flowed  through  the  Valley  of  the  Dry  River — Facts 
stated  by  Denon  ; and  by  Belzoni — Lake  Mceris  not  a Work  of  Art — 
The  River  of  Joseph,  and  Canals  connecting  it  with  the  Nile — Pyra- 
mids ; Account  by  Herodotus  ; Researches  of  Davison  ; of  Caviglia  ; 
of  Belzoni  ; Dimensions  of  Pyramids — Sphinx;  Exertions  of  Caviglia 
— Monolithic  Temple — Tombs — Reflections Page  74 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 

Remains  of  Egyptian  Literature  scanty  but  valuable— Meaning  of  Hie- 
roglyphics— Picture-writing— Progress  towards  an  Alphabet ; Illus- 
trated by  the  Hebrew  and  other  Oriental  Tongues — Different  Modes 
of  Writing  practised  by  the  Egyptians,  Epistolographic,  Hieratic,  and 
Hieroglyphic  properly  so  called —Discovery  of  -Rosetta  Stone— Re- 
searches of  Dr.  Young  and  Champollion— The  Practice  of  Chinese  in 
rendering  Words  Phonetic — The  Advantages  of  the  Hieroglyphical 
Method— Discoveries  of  Mr.  Salt — Anecdote  of  King  Thamus— Works 
of  Thoth  or  Hermes—  Quotation  of  Clemens  Alexandrinus — Greeks 
learned  History  from  Egypt — The  Numerical  System  of  the  Ancient 
Egyptians — The  Arabians  derived  their  Arithmetical  Signs  from 
Egyptians Page  129 


CHAPTER  VI. 

REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART  IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 

General  Magnificence  of  Remains— Alexandria— Pillar — Cleopatra’s 
Needle — Catacombs — Memphis — Beni  Hassan— Hermopolis  Magna — 
Antinopolis — Siout — Sepulchral  Grottos — Tdtnple  of  Antasopolis — 
Abydos — Dendera  or  Tentyra — Magnificent  ^Temple  and  Portico — 
Elegant  Sculptures — Zodiac  and  Planisphere — Opinions  as  to  their 
Antiquity— Thebes — The  Gateway  or  Propylon  at  Luxor— Magnifi- 
cent Sculptures— Kamac — The  Temple ; its  Approaches  and  splendid 


CONTENTS. 


13 


Gateways ; its  vast  Extent— Temples  at  Dair  and  Medinet  Abou — 
The  Memnonium — Statue  of  Memnon — Tombs— Hemtem — Esneh — 
Eleithias— Striking  Representations  of  Domestic  Life — Edfou—  Hadjur 
Silsili — Koum  Ombos — Es  Souan — Quarries  of  Syen6— Island  of 
Elephantine — Concluding  Remarks Page  153 

CHAPTER  VH. 

THE  CIVIL  HISTORY  OF  MODERN  EGYPT. 

Saracenic  Dynasties — Foundation  of  Cairo — Crusaders — Saladin  the 
Great—  Siege  of  Ptolemais— Death  of  Saladin— Crusaders  defeated — 
Rise  of  Mamlouks — The  Rorghites — Monguls  and  Tatars — Ibrahim 
Bey — Ali  Bey  ; his  Syrian  Campaign  ; his  Death  and  Character — 
Mohammed  Bey— Ibrahim  and  Mourad— Invasion  by  the  French — 
Defeat  at  Acre — Victory  of  Lord  Nelson— Battle  of  Alexandria,  and 
Death  of  Abercrombie— Evacuation  of  Egypt  by  the  French — Kurouf 
Pasha — Mohammed  Ali ; Success  against  the  Beys ; appointed  Pasha 
— British  Expedition  in  1807— Massacre  of  Mamlouks— History' of 
Wahabees ; defeated  by  Ibrahim  Pasha — European  Tactics  introduced 
— Character  of  Mohammed  Ali Page  209 

CHAPTER  Vm. 

THE  ACTUAL  STATE  OF  EGYPT  UNDER  THE  GOVERNMENT  OF 

MOHAMMED  ALI. 

Nature  of  Innovations — Members  of  Government — Household — Tenure 
of  Land — Resumption  of  it  by  the  Pasha — Condition  of  the  People — 
Army — Military  Schools — European  Arts — Canal  of  Mahmoudieh — 
Introduction  of  Cotton  Manufactures — Exportation  of  the  raw  Material 
to  England — Fear  of  Plague — Silk,  Flax,  Sugar — Monopoly  of  Vice- 
roy— Disadvantages  of  it — Caravans — Imports  and  Exports— Revenue 
and  Expenditure— Population— Copts,  Arabs,  Turks, Greeks,  Jews,  and 
Syrians— Characteristics — Cairo— Houses— Citadel— Joseph’s  Well, 
Joseph’s  Hall— Necropolis— Tombs— Mosques — Palace  at  Shoubra — 
Splendid  Pavilion— Comparison  of  Egypt  before  and  under  the 
Government  of  Mohammed  Ali — Future  Prospects  under  his  Suc- 
cessor  Page  258 

CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  OASES,  ANCIENT  BERENICE,  AND  DESERT  OF  THE  THEBAID. 

Meaning  of  the  Term  Oasis— Those  of  Egypt  described  in  various  and 
opposite  Colours— Used  as  Places  of  Exile— Their  Number — The 
Great  Oasis — Described  by  Sir  A.  Edmonstone — Ancient  Buildings — 
Necropolis  or  Cemetery— Supposed  Origin  of  such  Land — Western 
Oasis— First  visited  by  Sir  A.  Edmonstone— El  Cazar—  Soil—  Position 
— The  Little  Oasis — El  Kassar — Greek  Temple — Fountain— El  Haix — 
El  Moele— Oasis  of  Siwah — Description  of  Towns — Of  the  Temple 
of  Jupiter  Ammon— Fountain  of  the  Sun — Sacred  Lake — Other  Oases 
— Desert  of  the  Thebaid — Berenice — Trade — Account  of  an  imaginary 
City  by  Caillaud — Situation  and  Extent  of  Berenice— Emerald  Moun- 
tains— Present  Condition  of  Miners — Inhabitants  of  the  Desert — 
Sharkin — Myos  Hormus — Cosseir Page  287 


14 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  X. 

MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS  OF  THE  EGYPTIANS. 

Great  Variety  of  Manners  in  Egypt— Funeral  Ceremonies  described  by 
Diodorus — Judgment  pronounced  on  the  Dead — Civil  Suits  in  ancient 
Times— Account  of  Coptic  Baptism— Levantines — Moslem  Marriages; 
Description  by  Mr.  Browne— Interior  of  a Harem — Circassians — 
Ethiopian  Women — Mode  of  Living  among  Turks ; among  Euro- 
peans— Mosques  — Mohammed  Ali  and  Burckhardt — Language  of 
Copts — Religion — Festival  of  Calige — Virgin  offered  to  the  Nile;  a 
similar  Custom  in  India — Female  Mourners  in  Egypt — Dress  of 
Ladies — Amusements  of  Cairo — Reptiles,  Insects,  Nuisances — Anec- 
dote of  Sir  Sidney  Smith — Opinion  of  Denon — Character  of  Egyptian 
Arabs  — Houses  — Mode  of  Life  — Barbers — Doctors — Piety — Arabic 
Manuscripts — Serpent-eaters  and  Charmers — Mamlouk  Notions  of 
Respectability Page  308 

CHAPTER  XI. 

THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT. 

Geology — Valley  of  the  Nile — Alluvial  Formation — Primitive  Rocks — 
Serpentine — Of  Upper  Egypt — Limestone  Strata— Sandstone  and  Trap 
— Puddingstone — Verde  Antico — Natron  Rocks — Minerals — Precious 
Stones — Ores — Zoology — Camelus  Dromedarius— Giraffe — Civet  Cat 
— Ichneumon — Sorex,  or  Shrew — Jerboa— Hippopotamus — Crocodile ; 
cherished  by  Ancients — Monitor  of  the  Nile — Hyena — Capra  Aigros 
— Ovis  Tragelaphus  — Locust  — Birds — Chenelopex — Ostrich — Ibis 
Ardea ; Ibis  Religiosa — Vulture  ; Mistake  of  Bruce — Oriental  Dotter- 
ell — Charadrius  Himantopus — Corvus  JEgyptiacus — Alcedo  iEgyp- 
tiacus— Anas  Nilotica — Sterna  Nilotica — The  Pelican — The  Quail,  or 
Tetrao  Coturnix — Fishes — Echencis  Neucrates — Sparus  Niloticus — 
Labrus  Niloticus — The  Perch — Silurus  Clarias — Salmo  Niloticus — 
Tetraodon — Mugil  Cephalus  and  Clupea  Alosa — Plants — Papyrus; 
Uses — Persea — Lotus — Rose-lily — Rhamnus  Lotus — Phoenix  Dacty- 
lifera — Ficus  Sycomorus  — Plantain-tree — Cucumis  Chate— Cucur- 
bits Lagenaria — Colocasium — earthamus  Tinctorius— Acacia  ; Gum  ; 
Frankincense — Henna — The  Aloe — Zoophytes — Corallines — Red  Co- 
ral—^Sponges— Polypes — Madrepores,  Millepores,  Gorgonia  or  Sea- 
fan Page  327 


ENGRAVINGS. 


Map  of  Egypt To  face  the  Titlepage. 


Obelisk  of  Cleopatra,  Pompey’s  Pillar,  and  Roman  Tower 157 

View  of  the  Northern  Gate  of  Dendera  or  Tentyra. 167 

General  View  of  Edfou,  the  Ancient  Apollinopolis  Magna 202 

Part  of  the  City  of  Tombs  at  Cairo 283 


A VIEW 

or 

ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  EGYPT,  &c. 


CHAPTER  I. 


Introduction. 

Importance  of  Egyptian  Antiquities— Egypt  an  old  Country  in  the 
Infant  Age  of  Greece — Thebes  famous  in  the  Days  of  Homer — Learn- 
ing and  Science  of  Europe  derived  from  Egypt  through  Phenicia  and 
Greece — Inquiry  into  the  Source  of  Egyptian  Learning  and  Civilization 
— The  early  Improvement  of  Nubia  and  Abyssinia — Resemblance 
between  the  Religion,  the  Symbols,  and  Architecture  of  India  and  of 
Egypt — Anecdote  of  the  Sepoys  in  the  British  Army — Remarks  on  the 
Temples  in  both  Countries — A similar  Resemblance  between  the 
Egyptians  and  Chinese — All  primitive  Tribes  derived  their  Know- 
ledge from  the  same  Source — Institution  of  Castes  iq  Egypt  and  India 
— Statements  of  Herodotus  and  Diodorus  on  that  Subject — Probability 
that  Civilization  and  the  Arts  descended  the  Nile — Contrast  between 
their  advanced  Knowledge  and  their  debased  Worship— Reflection  on 
the  Importance  attached  to  the  durable  Nature  of  Architectural  Monu 
ments. 

In  many  respects  Egypt  has  long  appeared  to  the  scholar, 
the  antiquary,  and  the  philosopher  the  most  interesting 
country  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  Relatively  to  the  various 
tribes  who,  at  successive  eras,  have  founded  states  westward 
of  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Syrian  Desert,  it  has  been  univer- 
sally regarded  as  the  cradle  of  science,  as  well  as  the  first 
seat  of  regular  government ; and  hence  we  find  that  even 
the  polished  nations  of  modem  Europe  are  accustomed  to 
ascribe  the  rudiments  of  their  literature  and  arts  to  the  inge- 
nious people  who,  at  a period  beyond  the  records  of  civil 
history,  occupied  the  banks  of  the  Nile. 

B 2 


18 


INTRODUCTION. 


It  is,  no  doubt,  extremely  difficult  to  construct,  out  of  the 
scanty  materials  which  have  reached  our  times,  a chain  of 
narrative  so  complete  and  satisfactory  as  to  connect,  without 
the  absence  of  some  essential  links,  the  present  with  the 
past,  and  to  enable  us  to  derive  an  explanation  of  what  we 
see  from  a competent  knowledge  of  what  we  are  told  has 
been.  Between  the  immediate  successors  of  Menes,  twenty 
centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  and  the  delegated  rule 
which  now  directs  the  affairs  of  Egypt,  there  is  a wide  gulf, 
through  which  neither  the  boldest  archaeologist  has  yet 
been  able  to  establish  a path,  nor  the  eye  of  history  to  direct 
its  vision.  It  requires  even  a great  effort  of  imagination  to 
combine  the  ideas  of  that  magnificence  and  power  which 
must  have  distinguished  the  epoch  when  Thebes  was  built, 
and  the  splendid  monuments  of  her  kings  were  erected, 
with  the  facts  which  meet  the  view  of  the  traveller  in  our 
own  days,  amid  the  desolations  of  Karnac  and  the  ruins  of 
Luxor. 

The  land  of  the  Pharaohs,  in  truth,  was  an  old  country 
in  the  infant  age  of  Greece.  The  earliest  writers  of  Europe 
described  its  grandeur  as  having  already  reached  its  con- 
summation, and  even  as  beginning  to  pass  away  ; while  the 
philosophers  and  historians  who  crossed  the  Mediterranean 
in  search  of  knowledge  were  astonished  at  the  proofs  of 
an  antiquity  which  surpassed  all  their  notions  of  recorded 
time,  and  at  the  tokens  of  a wisdom,  genius,  and  opulence 
of  which  they  could  hardly  hope  that  their  countrymen 
would  believe  the  description.  In  the  days  of  Homer  the 
capital  of  the  Thebaid,  with  its  hundred  gates  and  its  vast 
population,  was  a subject  of  wonder  and  of  the  most  exalted 
panegyric, — an  effect  which  we  should  at  once  attribute  to 
the  exaggeration  of  the  poet,  were  it  not  that  the  remains 
which,  even  after  the  lapse  of  three  thousand  years,  continue 
to  resist  the  injuries  of  the  atmosphere  and  of  barbarism, 
bear  evidence  to  a still  greater  magnificence  than  is  ^recorded 
in  the  pages  of  the  Odyssey.  While  the  nations  which  at 
present  make  the  greatest  figure  in  the  world,  and  influence 
most  deeply  the  condition  of  human  nature,  had  not  yet 
passed  through  the  first  stage  of  social  life,  the  inhabitants 
of  Thebes  and  of  Memphis  had  made  a vast  progress  in 
civilization,  and  were  even  found  gratifying  a learned  curi- 
osity by  inquiries  into  the  constitution  of  the  universe,  and 


INTRODUCTION. 


19 


into  the  laws  which  regulate  the  movements  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  Nor  was  it  only  the  learning  and  mythological 
doctrines  which  characterized  the  brightest  periods  of  Greece 
and  Rome  that  were  borrowed  from  the  Egyptians.  On 
the  contrary,  we  can  trace  to  the  same  source  those  more 
valuable  sciences  which  exercised  the  talents  of  the  most 
ancient  and  renowned  among  European  sages.  Pythagoras 
submitted  to  study  the  elements  of  mathematics  in  the 
schools  of  the  priests  ; while  Hecataeus  and  Herodotus  col- 
lected the  materials  of  history  among  the  same  class  of 
men,  who  had  carefully  preserved  the  knowledge  of  former 
generations. 

The  Greeks,  it  has  been  frequently  remarked,  were  the 
only  nation  in  Europe  who  had  any  pretensions  to  antiquity. 
3ut  the  wisest  even  among  that  ambitious  people  considered 
themselves  as  of  yesterday  compared  to  the  Egyptians. 
Plato  confessed  that  his  countrymen  had  no  memorial  of 
any  event  beyond  a thousand,  or  at  most  two  thousand 
years  before  his  own  time  ; whereas,  in  the  days  of  Moses, 
the  wisdom  of  Egypt  had  already  become  proverbial,  and 
that,  too,  among  the  Syrian  tribes  who  bordered  upon  the 
original  seats  of  primeval  knowledge.  Phenicia,  which 
appears  to  have  set  the  first  example  of  commercial  inter- 
course to  the  rude  colonies  on  the  northern  shores  of  the 
great  sea,  proved  the  medium  through  which  the  learning, 
the  laws,  and  the  religion  of  the  Nile  were  conveyed  to  the 
ancestors  of  those  brave  and  ingenious  nations  who  have 
since  associated  an  imperishable  fame  with  the  memory  of 
Athens  and  Lacedemon.  The  names  of  Cadmus,  Cecrops, 
and  Danaus  continue  to  represent  those  missions  or  volun- 
tary migrations  which,  at  a remote  period,  transported  from 
Africa  to  Europe  the  treasures  of  oriental  wisdom. 

It  has  long  been  an  object  of  inquiry  among  scholars  to 
discover  the  channel  through  which  civilization,  science,  and 
an  acquaintance  with  the  liberal  arts  first  reached  the  valley 
which  is  watered  by  the  Nile.  Without  analyzing  the 
numerous  hypotheses  which  have  been  successively  formed 
and  abandoned,  or  repeating  the  various  conjectures  which 
have,  age  after  age,  amused  the  ingenuity  of  the  learned, 
we  shall  state,  at  once,  as  the  most  probable  of  the  opinions 
that  have  been  entertained  on  this  subject,  that  the  stream 
of  knowledge  accompanied  the  progress  of  commerce  along 


20 


INTRODUCTION. 


the  banks  of  those  great  rivers  which  fall  into  the  Persian 
Gulf,  and  thence  along  the  coast  of  Arabia  to  the  shores  of 
the  Red  Sea.  There  is  the  best  reason  to  believe  that  those 
passes  or  lateral  defiles  which  connect  the  sea  just  named 
with  the  river  of  Egypt  witnessed  the  earliest  migration  of 
colonists  from  Asia  ; who,  in  the  pursuits  of  commerce,  or 
in  search  of  more  fertile  lands,  or  of  mountains  enriched 
with  gold,  found  their  way  into  Nubia  and  Abyssinia. 
Meantime,  it  is  probable,  a similar  current  set  eastward 
across  the  mouths  of  the  Indus,  carrying  arts  and  institu- 
tions of  a corresponding  character  into  the  countries  which 
stretch  from  that  river  to  the  great  peninsula  of  Hin- 
doostan. 

The  most  obvious  confirmation  of  the  opinion  now  stated 
may  be  drawn  from  the  striking  resemblance  which  is  known 
to  subsist  between  the  usages,  the  superstitions,  the  arts, 
and  the  mythology  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Western 
India,  and  those  of  the  first  settlers  on  the  Upper  Nile. 
The  temples  of  Nubia,  for  example,  exhibit  the  same  fea- 
tures, whether  as  to'  the  style  of  architecture  or  the  form  of 
worship  which  must  have  been  practised  in  them,  with  the 
similar  buildings  which  have  been  recently  examined  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Bombay.  In  both  cases  they  consist  of 
vast  excavations  hewn  out  ii\  the  solid  body  of  a hill  or 
mountain,  and  are  decorated  with  huge  figures  which  indi- 
cate the  same  powers  of  nature,  or  serve  as  emblems  to 
denote  the  same  qualities  in  the  ruling  spirits  of  the  universe. 

As  a further  proof  of  this  hypothesis,  we  are  informed 
that  the  sepoys  who  joined  the  British  army  in  Egypt 
under  Lord  Hutchinson  imagined  that  they  found  their  own 
temples  in  the  ruins  of  Dendera,  and  were  greatly  exaspe- 
rated at  the  natives  for  their  neglect  of  the  ancient  deities, 
whose  images  are  still  preserved.  So  strongly,  indeed, 
were  they  themselves  impressed  with  this  identity,  that 
they  proceeded  to  perform  their  devotions  with  all  the  cere- 
monies practised  in  their  own  land.  There  is  a resem- 
blance, too,  in  the  minor  instruments  of  their  superstition, 
— the  lotus,  the  lingam,  and  the  serpent, — which  can  hardly 
be  regarded  as  accidental ; but  it  is,  no  doubt,  in  the  im- 
mense extent,  the  gigantic  plan,  the  vast  conception  which 
appear  in  all  their  sacred  buildings,  that  we  most  readily 
discover  the  influence  of  the  same  lofty  genius,  and  the  en* 


INTRODUCTION. 


21 


deavour  to  accomplish  the  same  mighty  object.  The  exca- 
vated temple  of  Guerfeh  Hassan,  for  instance,  reminds 
every  traveller  of  the  cave  of  Elephanta.  The  resemblance, 
indeed,  is  singularly  striking ; as  are,  in  fact,  all  the  lead- 
ing principles  of  Egyptian  architecture  to  that  of  the  Hin- 
doos. They  differ  only,  it  has  been  observed,  in  those  de- 
tails of  the  decorative  parts,  -which  trifling  points  of  differ- 
ence in  their  religious  creeds  seem  to  have  suggested  to 
each  ; but  many  even  of  the  rites  and  emblems  are  precise* 
the  same,  especially  those  of  the  temples  dedicated  to  ls- 
wara,  the  Indian  Bacchus.  In  truth,  in  most  respects  they 
are  so  much  alike  that  the  same  workman  might  almost  be 
supposed  to  have  superintended  the  execution  of  them  in 
both  countries.  In  India  and  in  Egypt  the  hardest  granite 
mountains  have  been  cut  down  into  the  most  striking,  if  no*- 
the  most  beautiful,  fronts  of  temples  adorned  with  sculpture. 
In  both  countries  large  masses  of  rock  have  been  excavated 
into  hollow  chambers,  whose  sides  are  decorated  with  col- 
umns and  statues  of  men  and  animals  carved  out  of  the 
same  stone  ; and  in  each  are  found  solid  blocks  of  many 
hundred  tons  weight,  separated  from  the  adjoining  moun- 
tain and  lifted  up  into  the  air.  By  whom  and  by  what 
means  these  wonderful  efforts  have  been  accomplished  is  a 
mystery  sunk  too  deep  in  the  abyss  of  time  ever  to  be  re- 
vealed. To  Greece  neither  country  is  indebted  for  any  part 
of  its  architecture,  while  she  has  evidently  taken  many  hints 
from  them.  Except  at  Alexandria  and  Antinoe,  no  edifice 
strictly  Grecian  appears  in  Egypt.  But  we  need  only  com- 
pare the  monolithic  temples  of  Nubia  with  those  of  Maha- 
bulipoor,  the  excavations  of  Guerfeh  Hassan  with  those  of 
Elephanta,  and  the  grottoes  of  Hadjur  Silsili,'as  described 
by  Pococke,  with  the  caverns  of  Ellora,  to  be  convinced  that 
these  sacred  monuments  of  ancient  days  derived  their  origin 
from  the  same  source.* 

A resemblance  of  a corresponding  nature  has  been  dis- 
covered in  the  religious  usages  of  the  Chinese,  compared 
with  those  of  the  Egyptians,  particularly  in  what  is  called 
the  feast  of  lamps, — a festival  annually  observed  by  the 
latter  people,  and  graphically  described  by  Herodotus  in  his 

* See  Legh's  Journey  in  Egypt  and  Nubia,  and  Quarterly  Review, 
vol.  xvi.  p.  18. 


22 


INTRODUCTION. 


second  book.  This  coincidence  in  a ceremony  so  little 
likely  to  suggest  itself  to  the  minds  of  men  who  had  no  in- 
tercourse with  one  another,  led  M.  de  Guignes  to  conclude 
that  the  first  inhabitants  of  China  must  have  been  a colony 
from  Egypt.  But  it  is  easy  to  account  for  all  such  facts 
upon  a much  more  obvious  as  well  as  a more  rational 
hypothesis.  No  one  can  have  failed  to  remark,  that  among 
the  most  ancient  nations  there  is  a great  similarity  in  point 
of  tradition,  habits,  opinions,  knowledge,  and  history.  The 
Babylonians,  the  Egyptians,  the  Assyrians,  the  Hindoos, 
and  the  descendants  of  Abraham  held  many  things  in  com- 
mon respecting  the  creation  of  the  world,  the  great  deluge, 
the  dispersion  of  the  human  race,  and  the  first  institution  of 
laws  and  religious  worship.  Hence  we  may  conclude  that 
the  general  agreement  in  these  particulars,  which  we  con- 
template among  the  more  primitive  tribes  of  mankind,  ought 
to  be  ascribed  to  the  instruction  which  they  had  received 
while  as  yet  they  were  but  one  family,  or  to  tire  traditionary 
tenets  which  had  spread  with  the  diverging  lines  of  their 
generations,  though  derived  originally  from  the  same  pri- 
meval source. 

But  by  far  the  most  striking  point  of  resemblance  be- 
tween the  inhabitants  of  Egypt  and  of  India  is  the  institu- 
tion of  castes, — that  singular  arrangement  which  places  an 
insuperable  barrier  between  different  orders  of  men  in  the 
same  country,  and  renders  their  respective  honours,  toils, 
and  degradation  strictly  hereditary  and  permanent.  Before 
the  invention  of  letters,  indeed,  mankind  may  be  said  to 
have  been  perpetually  in  their  infancy  ; whence  arose  the 
expedient,  founded  in  a view  of  the  public  good,  of  compel- 
ling sons  to  cultivate  the  arts  which  had  originated  in  their 
family,  and  to  follow  the  professions  whereby  their  fathers 
had  acquired  distinction.  In  allusion  to  the  four  classes 
into  which  the  natives  are  divided,  the  Hindoos  maintain 
that,  of  their  god,  Nara-Yana,  the  mouth  became  a priest, 
the  arm  was  made  a soldier,  the  thigh  was  transformed  into 
a husbandman,  and  from  his  feet  sprang  the  servile  multi- 
tude. The  narrative  of  Herodotus  bears  evidence  to  the 
same  institution  at  an  early  period  among  the  Egyptians. 
He  indeed  divides  the  fourth  caste  into  several  subordinate 
sections, — tradesmen,  shepherds,  interpreters,  and  pilots, 
end  thereby  presents  the  appearance  of  a still  more  minute 


INTRODUCTION. 


23 


distinction  than  prevails  in  the  East;  but  his  statement, 
when  compared  with  that  of  Diodorus  Siculus  at  a later 
epoch,  removes  every  shadow  of  doubt  in  regard  to  the 
identity  of  the  principle  from  which  this  political  arrange- 
ment must  have  originally  proceeded.  The  last-named 
historian  reduces  the  orders  to, three, — priests,  including 
men  of  rank  ; the  military  ; and  artisans.  It  is  obvious, 
however,  that  as  husbandmen  and  labourers  are  omitted, 
we  must  comprehend  in  the  third  grade  all  the  classes  who 
practise  those  arts  which  are  necessary  to  the  subsistence, 
the  comfort,  and  the  ornament  of  human  life. 

We  may  also  mention,  as  in  some  degree  connected  with 
the  division  of  labour  now  described,  that  medical  science, 
even  before  the  days  of  Herodotus,  must  have  been  very 
carefully  studied,  if  we  may  draw  such  a conclusion  from 
the  fact  that,  at  the  period  when  he  wrote,  one  physician 
was  confined  to  one  disease.  There  are,  he  adds,  a great 
many  who  practise  this  art  ; some  attend  to  disorders  of 
the  eyes,  others  to  those  of  the  head ; some  take  care  of 
the  teeth,  others  are  conversant  with  all  diseases  of  the 
intestines  ; while  many  attend  to  the  cure  of  maladies 
which  are  less  conspicuous.*  The  historian  could  not 
have  mentioned  a circumstance  more  characteristic  of  a 
people  advanced  to  a high  degree  of  civilization.  Of  the 
Babylonians,  among  whom  he  also  travelled,  he  relates  that 
they  have  no  professors  of  medicine,  but  that  they  carry 
their  sick  into  some  public  square,  with  the  view  of  getting 
advice  from  any  one  who  may  happen  to  have  been  afflicted 
with  the  same  illness.  The  passengers  in  general,  says 
he,  interrogate  the  sufferer  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  his 
malady,  in  order  that,  if  any  one  of  them  has  been  attacked 
with  a similar  disease  himself,  or  seen  its  operation  on  a 
third  person,  he  may  communicate  the  process  by  which  his 
own  recovery  was  effected,  or  by  which,  in  any  other  in- 
stance, he  has  known  the  distemper  to  be  removed.  No 
one  may  pass  by  a diseased  individual  in  silence,  or  without 
inquiry  into  the  symptoms  of  his  complaint.! 

But,  to  return  to  the  main  subject  now  before  us,  we 
may  take  leave  to  express  our  conviction  that,  in  proportion 
as  the  antiquities  of  Egypt  shall  be  brought  into  a clearer 


* Herodotus,  Euterpe,  chap.  84. 


I lb.  Clio,  chap.  197. 


24 


INTRODUCTION. 


light,  the  evidence  will  become  more  satisfactory  in  favour 
of  an  early  intercourse  between  Hindoostan  and  the  upper 
regions  of  the  Nile.  It  is  already  ascertained  that  the  arts, 
as  practised  in  the  Thebaid,  and  even  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Memphis,  must  have  descended  from  Ethiopia, — the  style 
of  sculpture  in  the  latter  being  in  several  respects  superior 
to  any  specimen  of  that  kind  of  workmanship  hitherto  dis- 
covered in  Egypt.  The  temples,  too,  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  above  the  cataracts  bear  a closer  resemblance  to  those 
of  India  than  the  corresponding  edifices  in  the  lower  parts 
of  the  country,  while  they  exhibit  the  undoubted  marks  of 
a more  remote  antiquity.  The  same  conclusion  is  further 
supported  by  the  celebrity  which  the  Ethiopians  had  ac- 
quired in  the  earliest  age  that  tradition  or  poetry  has  re- 
vealed to  us.  The  annals  of  the  Egyptian  priests  were  full 
of  them.  The  nations  of  Asia,  in  like  manner,  on  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates,  mingled  Ethiopian  legends  with  the 
songs  which  commemorated  the  exploits  of  their  own 
heroes.  At  a time,  too,  when  the  Greeks  scarcely  knew 
Italy  or  Sicily  by  name,  the  virtues,  the  civilization,  and 
the  mythology  of  the  Ethiopians  supplied  to  their  poets  a 
subject  of  lofty  description.  Homer,  both  in  the  Iliad  and 
Odyssey,  relates  that  Jupiter,  at  a certain  season  of  the 
year,  departed  from  his  chosen  seat  on  Olympus  to  visit 
this  remote  and  accomplished  people.  For  twelve  days  the 
god  was  absent  in  their  pious  and  hospitable  region.  It  is 
probable  that  some  annual  procession  of  the  priests  of  Am- 
mon up  the  Nile,  to  the  primitive  scene  of  their  worship, 
was  the  groundwork  of  this  legend  adopted  into  the  popu- 
lar creed  of  the  older  Greeks.  Diodorus  himself  expresses 
a similar  opinion,  when  he  states  that  the  Ethiopians  were 
said  to  be  the  inventors  of  pomps,  sacrifices,  solemn  assem- 
blies, and  other  honours  paid  to  the  gods  ; that  is,  that  they 
were  the  religious  parents  of  the  Egyptians,  to  whom  the  coun- 
trymen of  Homer  and  Hesiod  looked  up  as  to  their  instructers 
in  sacred  things  as  well  as  in  the  principles  of  civil  polity. 
It  has  therefore  been  thought  probable  that  ancient  Meroe 
was  the  original  seat  of  the  religion,  the  political  institu- 
tions, the  arts,  and  the  letters,  which  afterward  shed  so 
bright  a lustre  on  the  kingdom  of  the  Pharaohs.* 


* Heeren’s  Ideas  on  the  Politics  and  Commerce  of  Ancient  Nations. 


INTRODUCTION. 


25 


There  is  nothing  more  remarkable  in  the  history  of 
Egypt  than  that  the  same  people  who  distinguished  them- 
selves by  an  early  progress  in  civilization,  and  who  erected 
works  which  have  survived  the  conquests  of  Persia,  the 
triumphs  of  Roman  art,  and  all  the  architectural  labours 
of  Christianity,  should  have  degraded  their  fine  genius  by 
the  worship  of  four-footed  beasts,  and  even  of  disgusting 
reptiles.  The  world  does  not  present  a more  humbling  con- 
trast between  the  natural  powers  of  intellect  and  the  debas- 
ing effect  of  superstition.  Among  the  Jews,  on  the  other 
hand, — a people  much  less  elevated  by  science  and  mechani- 
cal knowledge, — we  find  a sublime  system  of  theology,  and 
a ritual  which,  if  not  strictly  entitled  to  the  appellation  of 
a reasonable  service,  was  yet  comparatively  pure  in  its  ordi- 
nances, and  still  further  refined  by  a lofty  and  spiritual  im-  . 
port.  It  has  been  said  of  the  Hebrews,  that  they  were  men 
in  religion,  and  children  in  every  thing  else.  This  observa- 
tion may  be  reversed  in  the  case  of  the  Egyptians ; for, 
while  in  the  greater  number  of  those  pursuits  which  give 
dignity  to  the  human  mind,  and  perpetuate  the  glories  of’ 
civilized  life,  they  made  a progress  which  set  all  rivalry  at 
defiance, — in  their  notions  and  adoration  of  the  invisible 
Powers  who  preside  over  the  destinies  of  man,  they  mani- 
fested the  imbecility,  the  ignorance,  and  the  credulity  of 
childhood. 

In  reviewing  the  annals  of  the  great  nations  of  antiquity, 
it  is  interesting  to  observe  that  nearly  all  the  knowledge  we 
possess  of  their  manners  and  institutions  may  be  attributed 
to  a circumstance  so  very  trivial  as  the  choice  which  they 
made  of  their  materials  for  building.  As  the  rise  of  Egyp- 
tian power  and  wisdom  preceded  a long  time  the  era  of 
letters,  the  history  of  the  more  ancient  kings,  like  that  of 
the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians,  must  have  been  lost,  had 
the  architectural  monuments  of  the  former  people  not  been 
constructed  of  more  imperishable  substances  than  were  to 
be  found  in  the  alluvial  plains  of  Mesopotamia.  In  con- 
nexion with  these  reflections,  we  are  naturally  led  to  remark, 
that  the  recent  discoveries  in  hieroglyphics  justify  the  hope 
that  the  darkness  which  has  so  long  hung  over  the  annals 
and  chronology  of  Egypt  will  be  at  length  so  far  dispelled 
as  to  enable  the  historian  to  ascertain  at  least  the  order  of 
events  and  the  succession  of  monarchs. 

C 


20 


PHYSICAL  AND  POLITICAL 


CHAPTER  II. 

Physical  Properties  and  Geographical  Distribution  of  Egypt. 

General  Description  of  Egypt — Origin  of  tlie  Name — Opinions  of  the 
Ancients — Egypt  the  Gift  of  the  Nile — Depth  of  the  Soil — Attempts  to 
ascertain  the  mean  Rate  of  Deposition — Opinions  of  Shaw,  Savary, 
Volney,  and  Bruce — Speculations  of  the  French  Philosophers — Proof 
lhat  Egypt  has  acquired  an  Elevation  of  Surface — Fear  of  Dr.  Shaw 
in  regard  to  the  eventual  Sterility  of  the  Land — Constancy  of  the 
m Inundations — Frauds  by  the  Government — Qualities  of  the  Water — 
Analysis  of  the  Mud — Accident  witnessed  by  Belzoni — Seasons  in 
Egypt — Heat — Infrequency  of  Rain — The  Winds,  Simoom — The  Po- 
litical Geography  of  Egypt — Mouths  of  the  Nile — Natron  Lakes — 
Waterless  River. 

* The  physical  qualities  of  Egypt  are  not  less  remarkable 
than  its  stupendous  works  of  art  and  its  early  civilization. 
It  presents  itself  to  the  eye  of  the  traveller  as  an  immense 
valley,  extending  nearly  600  miles  in  length,  and  hemmed 
in,  on  either  side,  by  a ridge  of  hills  and  a vast  expanse  of 
desert.  Viewed  as  an  alluvial  basin,  it  owes  its  existence 
entirely  to  the  Nile,  which  flows  through  it  from  south  to 
north,  conveying  annually  to  the  inhabitants  the  main  source 
of  their  agricultural  wealth,  salubrity  to  their  climate,  and 
beauty  to  their  landscape.  The  breadth  of  the  cultivable 
soil  varies,  of  course,  according  to  the  direction  of  the 
rocky  barriers  by  which  its  limits  are  determined, — spread- 
ing, at  some  parts,  into  a spacious  plain,  while  at  others 
it  contracts  its  dimensions  to  less  than  two  leagues.  The 
mean  width  has  been  estimated  at  about  nine  miles ; and 
hence,  including  the  whole  area  from  the  shores  of  the 
Delta  to  the  first  cataract,  the  extent  of  land  capable  of 
bearing  crops  has  been  reckoned  to  contain  ten  millions  of 
acres. 

The  learning  of  geographers  has  long  been  employed  in 
the  intricate  field  of  etymology  to  discover  the  origin  of  the 
term  by  which  Egypt  is  known  among  the  moderns.  It  is 
asserted,  by  the  Greeks,  that  a celebrated  king  of  this  name 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  EGYPT. 


27 


bequeathed  it  to  his  dominions,  which  had  formerly  passed 
under  the  appellation  of  Aeria,  or  the  land  of  heat  and 
blackness.  In  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Hebrews  it  is 
called  Mizraim,  eyidently  the  plural  form  of  the  oriental 
noun  Mizr,  the  name  which  is  applied  to  Egypt  by  the 
Arabs  of  the  present  day.  The  Copts  retain  the  native 
word  Chcmia,  which,  perhaps,  has  some  relation  to  Cham, 
the  son  of  Noth ; or,  as  Plutarch  insinuates,  may  only 
denote  that  darkness  of  colour  which  appears  in  a rich  soil 
or  in  the  human  eye.  Mizraim,  it  ought  also  to  be  observed, 
was  one  of  the  children  of  Cham  ; and  it  is  therefore  not 
improbable  that  the  epithet  applied  to  his  inheritance  may 
have  arisen  from  the  respect  usually  paid  to  the  founders 
of  nations.  Bruce  remarks  that  Y Gypt,  the  term  used  by 
the  Ethiopians  when  they  speak  of  Egypt,  means  the  coun- 
try of  canals, — a description  very  suitable  to  the  improved 
condition  of  that  singular  valley  under  her  ancient  kings. 
At  all  events,  it  is  perfectly  clear,  that  in  the  heroic  age  of 
Greece  the  word  Egyptus  was  employed  in  reference  to  an 
ancient  sovereign,  to  the  land,  and  also  to  the  river. 

The  Nile,  we  may  observe,  was  described,  even  among 
the  descendants  of  Jacob,  by  the  term  Sichor,  which  also 
signifies  black ; and  hence  the  Greeks  called  it  Melas,  and 
the  Latins  Niger,  words  which  express  the  very  same  idea. 
But  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  as  one  of  the  many  instances 
in  which  the  perceptions  of  the  ancients  as  to  colour  are 
not  clearly  comprehended  in  our  days,  that  the  modern 
name,  used  by  the  Arabs,  denotes  blue  ; the  very  tint,  per- 
haps, which  was  indicated  by  Plutarch  when  he  compared 
it  to  the  organ  of  vision.  The  Greeks,  indeed,  who  inter- 
preted all  languages  on  the  principles  recognised  by  their 
own,  derived  this  epithet  from  an  imaginary  event,  the 
reign  of  King  Nileus.  But  this  hypothesis  is  disproved 
by  the  familiar  fact  that  the  great  Abyssinian  branch  is 
denominated  by  the  inhabitants,  in  their  vernacular  tongue, 
the  Bahr-el-Nil,  the  Blue  River,  or  more  commonly  the 
Bahr-el-Azrek,  an  appellation  almost  strictly  synonymous. 

The  stream  itself,  as  if  it  were  doomed  for  ever  to  share 
the  obscurity  which  covers  the  ancient  history  of  the  land 
to  which  it  ministers,  still  conceals  its  true  sources  from 
th’  eager  curiosity  of  modern  science.  The  question  which 
■was  agitated  in  the  age  of-the  Ptolemies  has  not  yet  been 


28 


PHYSICAL  AND  POLITICAL 


solved ; and  although  2000  years  have  elapsed  since  Era- 
tosthenes published  his  conjectures  as  to  the  origin  of  the 
principal  branch,  we  possess  not  more  satisfactory  know- 
ledge on  that  particular  point  than  was  enjoyed  in  his  days 
by  the  philosophers  of  Alexandria.  The  repeated  failures 
which  had  already  attended  the  various  attempts  to  discover 
its  fountains  convinced  the  geographers  of  Greece  and 
Rome  that  success  was  impossible,  and  that  it  was  the  will 
of  the  gods  to  conceal  from  all  generations  this  great  secret 
of  nature.  Homer,  in  language  sufficiently  ambiguous, 
describes  it  as  a stream  descending  from  heaven.  Herodo- 
tus made  inquiry  in  regard  to  its  commencement,  but  soon 
saw  reason  to  relinquish  the  attempt  as  altogether  fruitless. 
Alexander  the  Great  and  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  engaged  in 
the  same  undertaking,  and  despatched  persons  well  qualified 
by  their  knowledge  for  the  arduous  task  ; but  who,  never- 
theless, like  the  great  father  of  history  himself,  travelled 
and  inquired  in  vain.  Pomponius  Mela  was  doubtful 
whether  it  did  not  rise  in  the  country  of  the  antipodes. 
Pliny  traced  it  in  imagination  to  a mountain  in  the  Lower 
Mauritania,  while  Euthemenes  was  of  opinion  that  it  pro- 
ceeded from  the  borders  of  the  Atlantic,  and  penetrated 
through  the  heart  of  Africa,  dividing  it  into  two  continents. 
Virgil  appears  to  have  favoured  a conjecture,  which  has  also 
found  supporters  at  a later  period,  that  the  Nile  proceeded 
from  the  East,  and  might  be  identified  with  one  of  the  great 
rivers  of  Asia. 

Quaque  pharetratae  vicinia  Persidis  urget, 

Et  viridem  JBgyptum  nigra  fceeundat  arena, 

Et  diversa  ruens  septem  discurrit  in  ora 

Usque  coloratis  amnis  devexus  ab  Indis. — Georg,  iv.  200. 

And  where  the  stream  from  India’s  swarthy  sons, 

Close  on  the  verge  of  quivered  Persia  runs, 

Broods  o’er  green  Egypt  with  dark  wave  of  mud, 

And  pours  through  many  a mouth  its  branching  flood. 

SOTHEBY. 

Lucan  indulges  in  his  usual  mysticism,  and  appears  satis- 
fied that,  by  a decree  of  the  fates,  the  glory  of  no  nation  will 
ever  be  increased  by  drawing  aside  the  veil  in  which  the 
Naiads  of  this  mighty  stream  have  been  pleased  to  conceal 
themselves.  The  conceptions  of  Lucretius,  the  poet  of 
physical  nature,  were  perhaps  more  correct,  although 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  EGYPT.  29 

obviously  founded  upon  a fortunate  conjecture  rather  than 
derived  from  actual  research. 

Ille  ex  eestiferi  parti  venit  amnis,  ab  Austro 
Inter  nigra  virum,  percoctaque  secla  calore, 

Exoriens  penitus  media  ab  regione  diei. — Lib.  vi.  721. 

While  rolls  the  Nile  adverse 
Full  from  the  south,  from  realms  of  torrid  heat, — 

Haunts  of  the  Ethiop  tribes  ; yet  far  beyond 
First  bubbling  distant,  o’er  the  burning  line. — Goon. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  judgment  formed  by  Hero- 
dotus in  respect  to  the  course  of  this  celebrated  river  coin- 
cides, in  a great  degree,  with  the  conclusions  held  by  many 
modem  authors.  He  remarks  that,  without  including  the 
section  between  Syene  and  the  Mediterranean,  the  progress 
of  the  Nile  is  known  to  the  extent  of  four  months’  journey, 
partly  by  land  and  partly  by  water ; for  it  will  be  found  on 
experience  that  no  one  can  go  in  less  time  from  Elephantine 
to  the  country  of  the  Automolians.  There  is  no  doubt,  he 
adds,  that  the  Nile  rises  in  the  west ; but  beyond  the  people 
just  mentioned  all  is  uncertainty,  this  portion  of  Africa  being, 
from  the  excessive  heat,  a rude  and  uncultivated  desert. 
The  Nile,  he  elsewhere  observes,  certainly  rises  in  Libya, 
which  it  divides  ; and  if  it  be  allowable  to  draw,  from  things 
which  are  well  known,  conclusions  respecting  those  that  are 
more  obscure,  it  takes  a similar  course  with  the  Danube. 
But  of  the  fountains  of  the  former  river,  washing,  as  it  does, 
the  savage  and  uninhabitable  wilds  of  Libya,  no  one  can 
speak  with  precision.* 

From  other  circumstances,  mentioned  in  the  second  book 
of  his  history,  there  is  little  doubt  that  Herodotus  believed 
the  Niger  and  the  Nile  to  be  the  same  river,  or,  at  least,  that 
the  water  which  was  carried  to  the  centre  of  the  African 
continent  by  the  one  was  discharged  into  the  sea  through 
the  mouths  of  the  other.  At  the  present  moment  there  is 
no  hypothesis  in  regard  to  these  streams  which  rests  on  a 
better  foundation.  It  is  no  longer  disputed  that  the  left 
branch,  the  Bahr-el-Abiad  or  White  River,  constitutes  the 
principal  body  of  the  Nile,  and  that  it  flows  towards  Egypt 
from  the  west  or  south-wrest.  Mr.  Browne  was  informed 
that  it  issues  from  a lofty  ridge  situated  to  the  south  of 
* Euterpe,  31.  33,  34. 

C 3 


30 


PHYSICAL  and  political 


Darfur,  called  in  the  language  of  the  country  Djibbel-cl- 
Kumri,  or  Mountains  of  the  Moon.  But  it  is  important  to 
observe  that  the  south  winds  are  there  the  hottest  and  driest 
of  any,  and  bring  along  with  them  thick  clouds  of  dust. 
This  shows  that  there  is  no  high  chain  within  a great  dis- 
tance in  the  direction  now  described ; for  the  winds,  before 
they  can  be  possessed  of  such  qualities,  must  sweep  over  a 
great  extent  of  sandy  desert. 

The  source  of  the  Bahr-el-Abiad  cannot,  therefore,  be 
sought  in  the  meridian  of  Darfur,  unless  we  consent  to  re- 
move it  far  beyond  the  equator.  Besides,  Mr.  Jackson  was 
informed  that  travellers  have  passed  by  water  from  Tim- 
buctoo  to  Cairo, — a circumstance  which,  if  true,  proves 
either  that  the  Niger  and  the  Nile  are  the  same,  or  that  there 
must  be  intermediate  ^streams,  forming,  between  the  two 
rivers  just  named,  a communication  resembling  that  which 
was  found  by  Humboldt  to  connect  the  Orinoco  with  the 
Amazons.  Nor  is  it  a slight  circumstance,  in  weighing  the 
evidence  on  both  sides  of  this  question,  to  be  reminded  that 
the  quantity  of  mud  brought  down  by  the  Nile  cannot  be 
washed  annually  from  the  rocky  channel  of  a mountain-tor- 
rent. This  fact  was  employed  by  Bruce  as  the  basis  of  his 
argument  against  those  writers  who  ascribe  the  increase  of 
the  Delta  to  the  depositions  of  the  river,  being  founded  on 
his  personal  observation  of  the  Bahr-el-Azrek  in  its  course 
through  the  greater  part  of  Abyssinia.  It  is  therefore  cer- 
tain that  the  White  River  cuts  a passage  through  a consid- 
erable extent  of  rich  soil  before  it  approaches  the  granite 
range  which  bounds  the  western  extremity  of  Nubia.  The 
tropical  rains  collect  on  the  table-lands  of  the  interior,  where 
they  form  immense  sheets  of  water  or  temporary  lakes. 
When  these  have  reached  a level  high  enough  to  overflow 
the  boundaries  of  their  basins,  they  suddenly  send  down 
into  the  rivers  an  enormous  volume  of  fluid  impregnated  with 
the  soft  earth  over  which  it  has  for  some  time  stagnated. 
Hence  the  momentary  pauses  and  sudden  renewals  in  the 
rise  of  the  Nile, — hence,  too,  the  abundance  of  fertilizing 
slime,  which  is  never  found  so  copious  in  the  waters  of  rivers 
which  owe  their  increase  solely  to  the  direct  influence  of  the 
rains.* 


* Malte  Brun,  vol.  iv.  p.  8. 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  EGYPT. 


31 


There  is  a fact,  however,  which  ought  not  to  be  omitted, 
as  being  of  some  value  in  the  determination  of  the  problem 
now  before  us  ; namely,  that  the  White  River  begins  to 
swell  three  or  four  weeks  before  the  Abyssinian  branch  re- 
ceives any  accession  of  water.  This  may  be  thought  to 
indicate  that  the  source  of  the  Bahr-el-Abiad  must  be  farther 
south  than  the  springs  which  Bruce  reached  in  the  meadows 
of  Geesh ; for  it  is  well  known  that  the  rainy  season  in 
every  part  of  the  torrid  zone  accompanies  the  vertical  posi- 
tion of  the  sun.  But  from  these  considerations,  perhaps,  as 
also  from  many  others  which  might  be  adduced,  we  ought 
only  to  conclude  that  the  most  learned  geographers  are  still 
very  much  in  the  dark  relative  to  the  origin  of  the  magnifi- 
cent stream  to  which  Africa  owes  its  chief  distinction,  as  well 
as  in  regard  to  the  geological  phenomena  of  that  remarkable 
kingdom  from  which  the  civil  historian  derives  his  clearest 
views  of  the  primitive  state  of  the  western  world. 

It  is  an  observation  as  old  as  the  days  of  Herodotus,  that 
Egypt  is  the  gift  of  the  Nile.  This  historian  imagined  that 
all  the  lower  division  of  the  country  was  formerly  a deep 
bay  or  arm  of  the  sea,  and  that  it  had  been  gradually  filled 
up  by  depositions  from  the  river.  He  illustrates  his  rea 
soning  on  this  subject  by  supposing  that  the  present  appear- 
ance of  the  Red  Sea  resembles  exactly  the  aspect  which 
Egypt  must  have  exhibited  in  its  original  state  ; and  that, 
if  the  Nile  by  any  means  were  admitted  to  flow  into  the 
Arabian  Gulf,  it  would,  in  the  course  of  twenty  thousand 
years,  convey  into  it  such  a quantity  of  earth  as  would  raise 
its  bed  to  the  level  of  the  surrounding  coast.  I am  of  opinion, 
he  subjoins,  that  this  might  take  place  even  within  ten  thou- 
sand years  ; why  then  might  not  a bay  still  more  spacious 
than  this  be  choaked  up  with  mud,  in  the  time  which  passed 
before  our  age,  by  a stream  so  great  and  powerful  as  the 
Nile!* 

The  men  of  science  who  accompanied  the  French  expe- 
dition into  Egypt  undertook  to  measure  the  depth  of  alluvial 
matter  which  has  been  actually  deposited  by  the  river.  By 
sinking  pits  at  different  intervals,  both  on  the  banks  of  the 
current  and  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  stratum,  they  ascer- 
tained satisfactorily, — first,  that  the  surface  of  the  soil 


Euterpe,  chap.  11. 


32 


PHYSICAL  AND  POLITICAL 


declines  from  the  margin  of  the  stream  towards  the  foot  of  the 
hills ; secondly,  that  the  thickness  of  the  deposite  is  gene- 
rally about  ten  feet  near  the  river,  and  decreases  gradually 
as  it  recedes  from  it ; and,  thirdly,  that  beneath  the  mud 
there  is  a bed  of  sand  analogous  to  the  substance  which  has 
at  all  times  been  brought  down  by  the  flood  of  the  Nile. 
This  convex  form  assumed  by  the  surface  of  the  valley  is 
not  peculiar  to  Egypt, — being  common  to  the  banks  of  all 
great  rivers  where  the  quantity  of  soil  transported  by  the 
current  is  greater  than  that  which  is  washed  down  by  rain 
from  the  neighbouring  mountains.  The  plains  which  skirt 
the  Mississippi  and  the  Ganges  present  in  many  parts  an 
example  of  the  same  phenomenon. 

An  attempt  has  likewise  been  made  to  ascertain  the  rate 
of  the  annual  deposition  of  alluvial  substance,  and  thereby 
to  measure  the  elevation  which  has  been  conferred  upon  the 
valley  of  Egypt  by  the  action  of  its  river.  But  on  no  point 
are  travellers  less  agreed  than  in  regard  to  the  change  of 
level  and  the  increase  of  land  on  the  seacoast.  Dr.  Shaw 
and  M.  Savary  take  their  stand  on  the  one  side,  and  are 
resolutely  opposed  by  Bruce  and  Volney  on  the  other.  Hero- 
dotus informs  us,  that  in  the  reign  of  Mceris,  if  the  Nile 
rose  to  the  height  of  eight  cubits,  all  the  lands  of  Egypt 
were  sufficiently  watered ; but  that  in  his  own  time, — not 
quite  nine  hundred  years  afterward, — the  country  was  not 
covered  with  less  than  fifteen  or  sixteen  cubits  of  water. 
The  addition  of  soil,  therefore,  was  equal  to  seven  cubits  at 
the  least,  or  a hundred  and  twenty-six  inches,  in  the  course 
of  nine  hundred  years.  “ But  at  present,”  says  Dr.  Shaw, 
“ the  river  must  rise  to  the  height  of  twenty  cubits, — and 
it  usually  rises  to  twenty-four, — before  the  whole  country 
is  overflowed.  Since  the  time,  therefore,  of  Herodotus, 
Egypt  has  gained  new  soil  to  the  depth  of  two  hundred 
and  thirty  inches.  And  if  we  look  back  from  the  reign 
of  Moeris  to  the  time  of  the  deluge,  and  reckon  that  interval 
by  the  same  proportion,  we  shall  find  that  the  whole  per- 
pendicular accession  of  the  soil,  from  the  deluge  to  A . D . 1 72 1 , 
must  be  500  inches ; that  is,  the  land  of  Egypt  has  gained 
41  feet  8 inches  of  soil  in  4072  years.  Thus,  in  process 
of  time,  the  whole  country  may  be  raised  to  such  a height 
that  the  river  will  not  be  able  to  overflow  its  banks ; and 
Egypt  consequently,  from  being  the  most  fertile,  will,  for 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  EGYPT.  33 

want  of  the  annual  inundation,  become  one  of  the  most 
barren  parts  of  the  universe.”* 

Were  it  possible  to  determine  the  mean  rate  of  accumula- 
tion, a species  of  chronometer  would  be  thereby  obtained  for 
measuring  the  lapse  of  time  which  has  passed  since  any 
monument,  or  other  work  of  art  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  river,  was  originally  founded.  In  applying  the  principle 
now  stated,  it  is  not  necessary  to  assume  any  thing  more 
than  that  the  building  in  question  was  not  placed  by  its 
architect  under  the  level  of  the  river  at  its  ordinary  inun- 
dations,— a postulatum  which,  in  regard  to  palaces,  temples, 
and  statues,  will  be  most  readily  granted.  Proceeding  on 
this  ground,  the  French  philosophers  hazarded  a conjecture 
respecting  a number  of  dates,  of  which  the  following  are 
some  of  the  most  remarkable. 

1.  The  depth  of  the  soil  round  the  colossal  statue  of 
Memnon,  at  Thebes,  gives  only  0.106  of  a metre  (less  than 
four  inches)  as  the  rate  of  accumulation  in  a century,  while 
the  mean  of  several  observations  made  in  the  valley  of 
Lower  Egypt  gives  0.126  of  a metre,  or  rather  more  than 
four  inches.  But  the  basis  of  the  statue  of  Memnon  was 
certainly  raised  above  the  level  of  the  inundation,  by  being 
placed  on  an  artificial  mound  ; and  excavations  made  near 
it  show  that  the  original  height  of  that  terrace  was  six 
metres  (19.686  feet)  above  the  level  of  the  soil.  A similar 
result  is  obtained  from  examining  the  foundations  of  the 
palace  at  Luxor.  Taking,  therefore,  0.126  of  a metre,  the 
mean  secular  augmentation  of  the  soil,  as  a divisor,  the  quo- 
tient, 4760,  gives  the  number  of  years  which  have  elapsed 
since  the  foundation  of  Thebes  was  laid.  This  date, 
which  of  course  can  only  be  considered  as  a very  imperfect 
approximation  to  the  truth,  carries  the  origin  of  that  cele- 
brated metropolis  as  far  back  as  2960  years  before  Christ, 
and  consequently  612  years  before  the  deluge,  according  to 
the  reckoning  of  the  modern  Jews.  But  the  numbers  given 
there  differ  materially  from  those  of  the  Samaritan  text  and 
the  Septifagint  version  ; which,  carrying  the  deluge  back 
to  the  year  3716  before  Christ,  make  an  interval  of  seven 
centuries  and  a half  between  the  flood  and  the  building  of 
Thebes.  Though  no  distinct  account  of  the  age  of  that 


* Shaw’s  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  235. 


34 


PHYSICAL  AND  POLITICAL 


city  is  to  be  found  in  the  Greek  historians,  it  is  clear  from 
Diodorus  that  they  believed  it  to  have  been  begun  in  a very 
remote  period  of  antiquity.* 

2.  The  rubbish  collected  at  the  foot  of  the  obelisk  of 
Luxor  indicates  that  it  was  erected  fourteen  hundred  years 
before  the  Christian  era. 

3.  The  causeway  which  crosses  the  plain  of  Siout  fur- 
nishes a similar  ground  for  supposing  that  it  must  have 
been  founded  twelve  hundred  years  anterior  to  the  same 
epoch. 

4.  The  pillar  of  Heliopolis,  six  miles  from  Cairo,  appears, 
from  evidence  strictly  analogous,  to  have  been  raised  about 
the  period  just  specified  ; but  as  the  waters  drain  off  more 
slowly  in  the  Delta  than  in  Upper  Egypt,  the  accumulation 
of  alluvial  soil  is  more  rapid  there  than  higher  up  the 
stream  ; the  foundations,  therefore,  of  ancient  buildings  in 
the  former  district  will  be  at  as  great  a depth  below  the 
surface  as  those  of  much  greater  antiquity  are  in  the  middle 
and  upper  provinces.  But  it  is  obvious  that  to  form  these 
calculations  with  such  accuracy  as  would  render  them  less 
liable  to  dispute,  more  time  and  observation  would  be 
requisite  than  could  be  given  by  the  French  in  the  short 
period  during  which  they  continued  in  undisturbed  pos- 
session of  Egypt.  One  general  and  important  conse- 
quence, however,  arising  from  their  inquiries,  can  hardly  be 
overlooked  or  denied  ; namely,  that  the  dates  thus  obtained 
are  as  remote  from  the  extravagant  chronology  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  as  they  are  consistent  with  the  testimony  of  both 
sacred  and  profane  history,  with  regard  to  the  early  civili- 
zation of  that  interesting  country.! 

But  little  or  no  reliance  can  be  placed  on  such  conclusions, 
because  it  is  now  manifestly  impossible  to  ascertain,  in  the 
first  instance,  whether  the  measures  referred  to  by  the  an- 
cient historians  were  in  all  cases  of  the  same  standard  ; 

* Diod.  Sic.  lib.  i.  c.  15,  aji(f)iaBr]TUTai  S'  f/  kticis  ttjs  noXews  ravrrjs,  6v 
fiovov  napa  tois  avyypacpcvcnv,  aXha  teat  nap'  avrois  rots  tear  Aiyvnrov 
[epeveri. 

t See  article  “ Egypt”  in  Encyclopaedia  Metropolitana.  The  grounds 
which  may  be  alleged  for  giving  a preference  in  point  of  chronology  to 
the  Samaritan  text,  or  .even  to  the  Septuagint,  and  the  singular  approxi- 
mation to  the  former,  resulting  from  d mean  taken  between  it,  the  Hin- 
doo, and  the  Chinese  epochs,  are  ably  stated  by  Klaproth  in  his  Asia 
Polyglotta,  25-29. 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  EGYPT. 


35 


and,  secondly,  whether  the  deposition  of  soil  in  the 
Egyptian  valley  did  not  proceed  more  rapidly  in  early  times 
than  it  does  in  our  days,  or  even  than  it  has  done  ever 
since  its  effects  first  became  an  object  of  philosophical 
curiosity.  That  the  level  of  the  land  has  been  raised,  and 
its  extent  towards  the  sea  greatly  increased  since  the  age 
of  Herodotus,  we  might  safely  infer,  as  well  from  the  great 
infusion  of  earthy  matter  which  is  held  in  suspension  by 
the  Nile  when  in  a state  of  flood,  as  from  the  analogous 
operation  of  all  large  rivers,, both  in  the  old  continents  and 
in  the  new.  There  is,  in  truth,  no  good  reason  for  ques- 
tioning the  fact  mentioned  by  Dr.  Shaw,  that  the  mud  of 
Ethiopia  has  been  detected  by  soundings,  at  the  distance 
•of  not  less  than  twenty  leagues  from  the  coast  of  the  Delta. 

Nor  is  there  any  substantial  ground  for  apprehending, 
with  the  author  just  named,  that,  in  process  of  time,  the 
whole  country  may  be  raised  to  such  a height  that  the  river 
will  not  be  able  to  overflow  its  banks  ; and  consequently 
that  Egypt,  from  being  the  most  fertile,  will,  for  want  of  the 
annual  inundation,  become  one  of  the  most  barren  parts  of 
the  universe.  The  fears  of  the  learned  traveller  might  have 
been  removed  by  the  following  reflections.  As  the  formation 
of  land  in  the  Delta  proceeds  at  a quicker  rate  than  in  the 
higher  parts  of  the  river,  the  issue  of  water  into  the  sea 
becomes,  year  after  year,  less  rapid,  and  consequently  less 
copious  ; the  current  is  retarded  by  the  accumulation  of 
mud  ; the  mouths  are  successively  choked  by  the  increasing 
masses  of  sand  and  soil ; and  hence,  in  the  course  of  ages, 
the  stream,  creating  a barrier  against  its  own  escape,  is 
thrown  back  upon  the  adjoining  valley,  and  becomes  the 
willing  servant  of  the  agriculturist  from  Rosetta  to  the 
Cataracts.  The  same  opinion  is  expressed  by  Lucretius 
in  the  following  verses  : — 

Est  quoque,  uti  possit  magnus  congestus  arenas 
Fluctibus  aversis  oppilare  ostia  contra, 

Cum  mare  permotum  ventus  ruit  intus  arenam : 

Quo  sit  utLpacto  liber  minus  exitus  amnis, 

Et  proclivus  item  fiat  minus  impetus  undis. — Lib.  vi.  v.  724. 

Then  ocean,  haply,  by  the  un devious  breeze 
Blown  up  its  channel,  heaves  with  every  wave 
Heaps  of  high  sands,  and  dams  its  wonted  course 
Whence  narrower,  too,  its  exit  to  the  main, 

And  with  less  force  the  tardy  stream  descends. 


36 


PHYSICAL  AND  POLITICAL 


While  this  cause  continues  to  operate  in  checking  the 
velocity  of  the  inundation  in  the  northern  division  of  the 
country,  the  entrance  of  the  river  at  Philoe  is  gradually 
facilitated  by  the  removal  of  those  obstructions  which,  in 
ancient  times,  secured  to  Nubia  the  advantages  of  an  annual 
irrigation  such  as  Egypt  now  enjoys,  and  which  still  par- 
tially oppose  the  motion  of  the  descending  flood.  The 
traveller  discovers  on  both  sides  of  the  Nubian  valley  many 
traces  of  an  extended  cultivation  which  no  longer  exists. 
The  ridge  of  rocks  which  formerly  crossed  the  line  of  the 
river,  and  gave  rise  to  the  magnificent  falls,  the  sound  of 
which  was  heard  at  the  distance  of  so  many  leagues  and 
stunned  the  neighbouring  inhabitants,  has  been  insensibly 
corroded  and  worn  down  by  the  action  of  the  rushing* 
water,  and  presents  in  these  days  only  a few  tokens  of  its 
original  extent.  A similar  effect,  which  time  will  produce 
on  the  cliffs  of  Niagara,  will  be  attended  with  a similar  result 
on  the  chain  of  lakes  which  terminate  in  Erie, — the  con- 
tents of  which  will  at  length  find  their  way  to  the  ocean 
along  the  bed  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  In  the  remote  ages  of 
the  future,  the  immense  valleys  now  occupied  by  Superior, 
Michigan,  and  those  other  inland  seas  which  form  so  striking 
a feature  in  North  America,  will  be  covered  with  flocks, 
herds,  and  an  agricultural  population,  and  only  watered  by 
a fine  river  passing  through  their  centre.  In  this  way  the 
interior  of  every  continent  is  imperceptibly  drained,  and 
new  tracts  of  alluvial  land  are  added  to  its  extremities. 

That  Egypt  was  raised  and  augmented  in  the  manner 
described  above  is  rendered  manifest  by  a variety  of  con- 
siderations. It  is  particularly  deserving  of  notice,  as  sug- 
gested by  Dr.  Shaw  and  confirmed  by  the  French,  that 
whereas  the  soil  of  other  level  countries  is  usually  of  the 
same  depth,  we  find  it  in  Egypt  to  vary  in  proportion  to 
its  distance  from  the  river, — being  in  some  places  near  the 
banks  more  than  thirty  feet,  while  at  the  extremity  of  the 
inundation  it  does  not  exceed  six  inches.  Another  circum- 
stance which  fortifies  the  same  conclusion  is  the  practice 
long  since  become  necessary  of  raising  mounds  to  protect 
their  cities  from  the  violence  of  the  waters.  It  is  not  to 
be  imagined  that  the  natives,  accustomed  to  the  annual 
swelling  of  their  river,  would  build  their  towns  within  the 
limits  even  of  its  greatest  elevation.  On  the  contrary,  it  is 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  EGYPT. 


37 


believed  that  they  were  wont  to  place  their  cities  on  artificial 
eminences,  to  guard  against  the  inconvenience  of  the  sum- 
mer flood,  and  particularly  to  exempt  from  its  ravages  their 
temples  and  public  monuments.  But  it  is  every  where  ad- 
mitted that  some  of  the  finest  of  their  ancient  towns  are  at 
present  undeT  the  level  of  the  inundation  ; while  the  most 
laborious  efforts  have  in  other  parts  become  indispensable 
to  prevent,  by  embanking,  the  destruction  of  their  sacred 
buildings.  Memphis,  it  is  presumed,  has  been  covered  by 
.the  increasing  soil,  after  having  been  abandoned  by  its 
inhabitants,  who  had  found  the  use  of  mounds  unavailing. 
Bubastis,  when  about  to  fall  a prey  to  the  same  destroyer, 
was  rebuilt  on  higher  ground  ; but  the  beautiful  temple,  as 
it  could  not  be  removed,  was  left  in  its  original  position, 
and  was  accordingly  looked  down  upon  from  every  part  of 
the  new  city.  Heliopolis,  in  like  manner,  as  we  are 
informed  by  Strabo,  was  erected  upon  an  eminence  ; but 
at  present  the  land  is  elevated  around  it  to  such  a degree 
that  it  appears  situated  in  a plain,  which,  moreover,  is  inun- 
dated every  year  to  the  depth  of  six  or  eight  feet.* 

This  source  of  fertility  to  Egypt  depends  exclusively, 
as  every  reader  knows,  upon  the  periodical  rains  which 
drench  the  table-land  of  Abyssinia  and  the  mountainous 
country  which  stretches  from  it  towards  the  south  and  west. 
The  ancients,  some  of  whom  indeed  entertained  very  absurd 
notions  respecting  the  cause  of  this  phenomenon,  were 
generally  in  the  right  as  to  its  physical  origin, — expressing 
their  belief  that  the  annual  overflow  of  the  Nile  was  closely 
connected  with  the  climate  of  Ethiopia,  that  receptacle  of 
clouds  and  vapour.  Plutarch  states  most  distinctly  that  the 
increase  of  the  Egyptian  river  is  owing  to  the  rains  which 
fall  in  Abyssinia.  Even  the  Arabs  had.  arrived  at  the  same 
conclusion  long  before  any  European  found  his  way  into  the 
country. f More  than  seven  hundred  years  ago,  a failure  in 
the  inundation  was  announced  to  the  farmers  of  Egypt  by 
a clerical  envoy  from  the  chief  city  of  Ethiopia ; who,  after 
having  stated  that  the  season  in  the  hill  country  had  been 
unusually  dry,  advised  them  to  expect  and  prepare  for  the 
Unwonted  lowness  of  the  Nile,  which  actually  occurred. 

* Shaw,  vol.  ii.  p.  229. 

t History  of  Egypt  by  Abdollatiph,  quoted  by  Shaw,  vol.  ii.  p.  215. 

D 


38 


PHYSICAL  AND  POLITICAL 


It  i6  impossible  to  find  anywhere  among  terrestrial  objects 
a more  striking  instance  of  the  stability  of  the  laws  of  na- 
ture than  the  periodical  rise  and  fall  of  this  mighty  river. 
We  know,  by  the  testimony  of  antiquity,  that  the  inunda- 
tions of  the  Nile  have  been  the  same  with  respect  to  their 
height  and  duration  for  thousands  of  years  ; which,  as 
Humboldt  remarks,  is  a proof  well  worthy  of  attention,  that 
the  mean  state  of  humidity  and  temperature  does  not  vary 
in  that  vast  basin.*  The  rise  of  the  water  is  so  regular  that 
the  inhabitants  of  Lower  Egypt  look  for  its  arrival  with  the 
same  degree  of  confidence  as  if  the  blessings  which  it  brings  * 
along  with  it  depended  upon  causes  within  their  own  control. 

The  value  attached  to  this  gift  of  nature  is  esteemed  so 
great  as  to  be  made  the  subject  of  political  regulation,  and 
the  main  source  of  public  revenue.  When  it  rises  to  six- 
teen cubits,  the  prosperity  of  the  country  and  the  wealth  of 
the  exchequer  are  secure.  But,  unfortunately,  influenced 
by  avaricious  motives,  the  power  of  a despotic  government 
is  employed  to  mislead  their  own  people  in  the  first  instance, 
and,  through  that  channel,  the  more  scientific  nations  of 
Europe,  in  regard  to  the  actual  rise  of  the  inundation.  It 
has  been  suspected  that  the  notices  issued  by  the  guardians 
of  the  Mekyas,  or  Nilometer,  have  a reference  to  the  taxes 
which  the  ruler  of  Egypt  intends  to  levy,  rather  than  to 
the  real  increase  of  the  fertilizing  fluid  from  which  they  are 
to  be  derived.  It  was  first  suspected  by  Niebuhr,  and  after- 
ward fully  ascertained  by  the  French,  that  the  number  of 
cubits  announced  in  the  daily  proclamation  of  the  height 
of  the  river  is  not  to  be  relied  upon.  The  real  state  of  the 
inundation  is  concealed  for  political  purposes  ; and  as  a 
proof  of  this,  it  is  mentioned  by  M.  Girard,  that,  in  1801, 
when  the  public  crier  gave  notice  that  the  water  had  attained 
twenty-three  cubits  two  inches,  it  stood  in  reality  at  only 
eighteen  cubits.  Hence  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  an  accu- 
rate statement  on  this  head,  and  the  impossibility  of  com- 
paring with  suitable  exactness  the  fluctuations  of  the  river 
in  ancient  and  modern  times. 

Considering  how  much  the  Egyptians  owe  to  the  Nile,  it 
is  not  surprising  that  in  rude  ages  they  should  have  been 
induced  to  make  it  an  object  of  w orship  Not  only  does  it 


Pers.  Nar.  vol.  iv. 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  EGYPT. 


39 


supersede  the  labour  of  the  plough  and  the  necessity  of  col- 
lecting manure,  but  it  also  supplies  an  abundance  of  that 
element  which  is  the  most  necessary  to  human  existence 
and  comfort,  and  which  to  a native  of  Egypt  is,  at  the  same 
time,  a medicine  and  a luxury.  The  Egyptian,  in  short, 
like  the  Hindoo,  finds  his  chief  solace  in  his  beloved  river. 
Its  water  is  preferred  to  the  most  costly  beverage  ; he  even 
creates  an  artificial  thirst,  that  he  may  enjoy  the  delight  of 
quenching  it  ; and,  when  languishing  under  disease,  he 
looks  forward  to. the  approaching  inundation  as  the  season 
©f  renovated  health  and  vigour.  Nor.  is  this  predilection  to 
be  ascribed  to  bigotry  or  ignorance.  On  the  contrary,  we 
. find  that  Europeans  are  equally  loud  in  theii^eulogies  on  the 
agreeable  and  salubrious  qualities  of  the  Nile.  Giovanni 
Finati,  for  example,  who  was  no  stranger  to  the  limpid 
streams  of  other  lands,  sighed  for  the  opportunity  of  return- 
ing to  Cairo,  that  he  might  once  more  drink  its  delicious 
water,  and  breathe  its  mild  atmosphere.  Maillet,  too,  a 
writer  of  good  credit,  remarks,  that  it  is  among  waters  what 
champaign  is  among  wines.  The  Mussulmans  themselves 
acknowledge  that  if  their  prophet  Mohammed  had  tasted  it, 
he  would  have  supplicated  Heaven  for  a terrestrial  immor- 
tality, that  he  might  enjoy  it  for  ever. 

The  Copts,  with  the  feeling  natural  to  Christians  of  the 
Greek  communion,  have  fixed  upon  the  24th  of  June,  the 
festival  of  St.  John,  as  the  day  which  affords  the  first  deci- 
sive token  of  the  annual  flood.  Travellers,  however,  inform 
us  that  in  ordinary  years,  it  is  not  till  the  first  week  in  July 
the  rise  can  be  distinctly  marked.  It  is  true,  that  at  a much 
earlier  part  of  the  season  there  is  a temporary  swell  in  the 
current,  occasioned  by  partial  rains  which  fall  within  the 
tropics  soon  after  the  vernal  equinox  ; but  the  real  inunda- 
tion does  not  commence  till  the  period  already  mentioned, 
and  even  then  very  imperceptibly.  By  the  middle  of  August 
it  has  reached  half  its  elevation,  but  it  is  not  at  the  highest 
till  towards  the  last  days  of  September.  It  then  continues 
stationary  about  two  weeks,  when  it  begins  gradually  to 
subside.  By  the  10th  of  November  it  has  fallen  one-half, 
from  which  period  it  diminishes  very  slowly  till  the  15th  or 
16th  of  the  following  May,  when  it  is  understood  to  have 
reached  its  lowest  ebb.  During  the  increase  the  water  first 
acquires  a green  colour,  sometimes  pretty  deep ; and  after 


40 


PHYSICAL  AND  POLITICAL 


thirty  or  forty  days  this  is  succeeded  by  a brownish  red. 
These  changes  are  probably  owing  to  the  augmentations  it 
receives  from  different  temporary  lakes  in  succession,  or 
from  the  rains  which  fall  at  various  distances  on  the  table- 
lands in  the  interior  of  Africa. 

The  mud  of  the  Nile  upon  analysis  gives  nearly  one-half 
of  argillaceous  earth,  with  about  one-fourth  of  carbonate 
of  lime  ; the  remainder  consisting  of  water,  oxide  of  iron, 
and  carbonate  of  magnesia.  On  the  very  banks  the  slime  is 
mixed  with  much  sand,  which  it  loses  in  proportion  as  it  is 
carried  farther  from  the  river,  so  that  at  a certain  distance  it 
consists  almost  entirely  of  pure  argil.  This  mud  is  em- 
ployed in  several  arts  among  the  Egyptians.  It  is  formed, 
into  excellent,  bricks,  as  well  as  into  a variety  of  vessels  for 
domestic  use.  It  enters  also  into  the  manufacture  of  tobacco- 
pipes.  Glass-makers  employ  it  in  the  construction  of  their 
furnaces,  and  the  country  people  cover  their  houses  with 
it.  As  it  contains  principles  favourable  to  vegetation,  the 
cultivators  consider  it  as  a sufficient  manure  for  such  places 
as  have  not  been  saturated  by  the  overflowing  of  the  river. 

Although  the  Nile  is  almost  without  exception  the  min- 
ister of  good  to  Egypt,  there  are  yet  cases  in  which  the 
excess  of  its  waters  has  occasioned  no  small  loss  both  of 
life  and  property.  In  September,  1818,  Belzoni  witnessed 
a deplorable  scene,  owing  to  the  river  having  risen  three 
feet  and  a half  above  the  highest  mark  left  by  the  former 
inundation.  Ascending  with  uncommon  rapidity  it  carried 
off  several  villages,  and  some  hundreds  of  their  inhabitants.. 
Expecting  an  unusual  rise,  in  consequence  of  the  scarcity 
of  water  the  preceding  season,  the  Arabs  had  had  recourse 
to  their  wonted  expedient  of  erecting  fences  of  earth  and 
reeds  round  the  villages,  to  keep  the-  water  from  their 
houses.  But  on  this  occasion  the  pressure  of  the  flood 
baffled  all  their  efforts.  Their  cottages,  built  of  earth,  could 
not  stand  one  moment  against  the  current,  but  were,  as 
soon  as  the  water  touched  them,  levelled  with  the  ground. 
The  rapid  stream  carried  off  all  that  was  before  it ; the 
inhabitants  of  all  ages,  with  their  corn  and  cattle,  were 
washed  away  in  an  instant.  In  Upper  Egypt,  where  the 
villages  are  not  raised  above  the  level  even  of' the  ordinary 
inundations,  the  natives  depend  for  their  safety  upon  arti- 
ficial barriers.  At  Agalta,  whither  he  went  to  procure  the 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  EGYPT. 


41 


assistance  of  the  caimakan,  or  magistrate,  he  found  the  said 
functionary  in  great  alarm,  expecting  every  hour  to  be  swept 
away  by  the  Nile.  “ There  was  no  boat  in  the  village,  and 
should  the  water  break  down  their  weak  fences,  the  only 
chance  of  escape  was  by  climbing  the  palm-trees,  till  Provi- 
dence sent  some  one  to  their  relief.  All  the  boats  were 
employed  in  carrying  away  the  com  from  villages  that  were 
in  danger.  Both  in  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt  the  men, 
women,  and  children  are  left  to  be  the  last  assisted,  as  their 
lives  are  not  so  valuable  as  com,  which  brings  money  to  the 
pasha.  As  this  village  was  then  four  feet  below  the  water, 
the  poor  Fellahs  were  on  the  watch  day  and  night  round 
their  fences.  They  employed  their  skin-machines,  or  bags, 
to  throw  out  the  water  which  rose  from  under  the  ground ; 
but  if  their  fences  should  be  broken  down  all  would  be  lost.” 
At  another  village  described  by  the  traveller,  the  distress  of 
the  people  was  very  great.  Some  of  them  had  taken  refuge 
on  a spot  where  there  were  only  a few  feet  of  land  un- 
covered ; and  the  water,  he  adds,  was  to  rise  twelve  days 
more,  and  after  that  to  remain  twelve  days  at  its  height, 
according  to  the  usual  term  of  the  inundation.* 

It  was  probably  to  prevent  the  occurrence  of  such  catas- 
trophes, as  well  as  to  turn  to  a beneficial  purpose  the  super- 
fluous waters  of  the  Nile,  that  the  lake  of  Moeris,  and 
other  similar  receptacles,  were  formed  by  the  ancient  kings 
of  Egypt.  Although  the  valley  of  Fayoum  supplied  a 
natural  basin  for  the  grand  reservoir  now  mentioned,  yet  as 
the  canal  which  connected  it  with  the  river,  together  with 
the  numerous  dams  which  were  necessary  to  regulate  the 
current  during  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  inundation,  were  the 
fruit  of  human  labour,  we  shall  postpone  the  description  of 
it  till  we  come  to  the  chapter  on  the  Works  of  Ancient  Art. 

We  have  already  remarked  that  Egypt  is  indebted  for 
her  rich  harvests  to  the  mould  or  soil  which  is  deposited  by 
the  river  during  the  annual  flood.  As  soon  as  the  waters 
retire  the  cultivation  of  the  ground  commences.  If  it  has 
imbibed  the  requisite  degree  of  moisture,  the  process  of 
agriculture  is  neither  difficult  nor  tedious.  The  seed  is 
scattered  over  the  soft  surface,  and  vegetation,  which  almost 
immediately  succeeds,  goes  on  with  great  rapidity.  Where 

* Narrative  of  Operations,  <fcc.  vol.  ii.  p7 94-29. 

D 2 


42 


PHYSICAL  AND  POLITICAL 


the  land  has  been  only  partially  inundated,  recourse  is  had 
to  irrigation,  by  means  of  which  many  species  of  vegeta- 
bles are  raised  even  during  the  dry  season.  Harvest  follows 
at  the  distance  of  about  six  or  eight  weeks,  according  to 
the  different  kinds  of  grain, — leaving  time  in  most  cases  for 
a succession  of  crops,  wherever  there  is  a full  command  of 
water.  The  cold  season  begins  with  December,  and  con- 
tinues about  two  months.  Spring  appears  in  the  first  days 
of  February,  when  the  fruit-trees  blossom,  and  the  atmos- 
phere acquires  a delightful  warmth.  The  period  of  summer 
may  be  said  to  commence  in  June,  and  to  end  at  the  close 
of  September,  although  the  transition  from  the  one  season 
to  the  other  is  so  gradual  that  it  is  impossible  to  define  the 
exact  limits  of  either.  During  these  four  months  the  heat 
is  intense,  the  fields  to  which  the  swelling  river  has  not 
attained  are  parched  like  a desert,  and  no  green  leaf  is  seen 
but  such  as  are  produced  by  artificial  irrigation.  Autumn, 
which  is  only  marked  by  a slight  diminution  of  temperature, 
commences  about  the  middle  of  October,  when  the  leaves 
fall,  and  the  Nile  retires  within  its  channel ; and  till  the 
approach  of  that  season  which,  from  its  relation  to  the  rest 
of  the  year,  must  be  called  winter,  the  face  of  the  country 
resembles  a beautiful  meadow  diversified  with  lively  colours. 
Thus  is  realized  the  description  of  Volney,  who  observed 
that  Egypt  assumed  -in  succession  the  appearances  of  an 
ocean  of  fresh  water,  of  a miry  morass,  of  a green  level 
plain,  and  of  a parched  desert  of  sand  and  dust.* 

For  various  reasons,  especially  the  want  of  wood  and 
the  low  elevation  of  the  whole  plain  from  Rosetta  to  Assouan, 
the  average  degree  of  heat  in  Egypt  is  considerably  greater 
than  in  many  other  countries  situated  in  the  same  latitude. 
In  summer,  as  long  as  the  sun  remains  above  the  horizon, 
the  atmosphere  is  inflamed,  the  sky  is  cloudless  and  spark- 
ling, and  the  heat  is  rendered  supportable  only  by  the  pro- 
fuse perspiration  which  it  excites.  At  Cairo,  the  medium 
temperature  during  that  season  has  been  estimated  at 
ninety-two  degrees  of  Fahrenheit’s  thermometer.  On 
some  occasions  it  has  been  known  to  rise  as  high  as  one 
hundred  and  twelve  degrees  ; but  such  an  intensity  of  heat 
is  usually  of  short  continuance,  and  almost  never  expe* 


* Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  10. 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  EGYPT. 


43 


nenced  except  in  the  more  confined  districts  of  the  Said. 
At  sunset  the  wind  falls,  the  air  becomes  cooler,  and  the 
vapour  suspended  in  the  atmosphere  during  the  day  is  de- 
posited in  an  abundant  supply  of  dew.  As  the  evening 
advances,  a thin  mist  darkens  the  horizon,  and  spreads  over 
the  watery  grounds  ; but  during  the  night  it  becomes 
scarcely  perceptible,  and  in  the  morning, .when  the  sun  has 
attained  a certain  elevation,  it  gradually  ascends  in  the  form 
of  flaky  clouds. 

The  copious  evaporation,  which  necessarily  takes  place 
in  a country  distinguished  one-half  of  the  year  by  excessive 
heat  and  moisture,  is  hardly  ever  restored  to  the  soil  in  the 
shape  of  rain.  The  clouds,  it  is  true,  sometimes  collect  in 
dark  masses,  and  the  atmosphere  exhibits  all  the  meteoro- 
logical symptoms  which  in  other  climates  indicate  rain  ; but 
a shower,  notwithstanding,  is  a very  rare  occurrence  in 
Egypt.  When  this  phenomenon  does  occur,  it  continues 
only  a few  minutes,  and  seems  counteracted  by  some  affini- 
ties, chymical  or  electrical,  too  powerful  to  be  overcome  by 
the  ordinary  principle  of  gravity.  In  the  Delta  rain  is 
occasionally  seen  during  the  cool  part  of  the  year ; but 
above  Cairo  it  is  almost  never  witnessed  at  any  season. 
Thunder  and  lightning  are  still  more  infrequent,  and  are, 
at  the  same  time,  so  completely  divested  of  their  terrific 
qualities  that  the  Egyptians  never  associate  with  them  the 
idea  of  destructive  force,  and  are  quite  unable  to  comprehend 
how  they  should  ever  be  accompanied  with  either  fear  or 
injury.  Showers  of  hail  descending  from  the  hills  of 
Syria,  and  sweeping  along  the  plains  of  Palestine,  are 
sometimes  known  to  reach  the  confines  of  Egypt.  But  the 
production  of  ice  is  so  extremely  uncommon,  that,  on  one 
occasion  when  it  appeared  in  the  low  country,  the  Arabs 
collected  it  wfith  the  greatest  care,  and  sold  it,  at  a high 
price,  to  the  European  merchants  of  Alexandria. 

The  course  of  the  wind,  so  variable  in  our  climate,  is 
almost  strictly  periodical  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  In 
point  both  of  strength  and  duration,  the  northerly  breezes 
predominate, — blowing  nearly  nine  months  in  the  year. 
They  continue  with  little  intermission  from  May  till  Sep- 
tember ; but  about  the  autumnal  equinox  they  veer  round 
to  the  east,  where  they  remain  nearly  six  weeks,  with  only 
slight  deviations.  About  the  end  of  February  the  gale 


44 


PHYSICAL  AND  POLITICAL 


assumes  a southerly  direction,  and  fluctuates  exceedingly 
till  the  close  of  April,  when  it  again  yields  for  a time  to  a 
more  powerful  current  from  the  eastward. 

The  southerly  winds  are  the  most  changeable,  as  well 
as  the  most  unhealthy  ; traversing  the  arid  sands  of  Africa, 
uninterrupted  by  rivers,  lakes,  or  forests,  they  arrive  in 
Egypt  fraught  with  all  the  noxious  exhalations  of  the 
desert.  At  their  approach,  the  serene  sky  becomes  black 
and  heavy ; the  sun  loses  its  splendour,  and  appears  of  a 
dim  violet  hue  ; a light  warm  breeze  is  felt,  which  gradually 
increases  in  heat  till  it  almost  equals  that  of  an  oven. 
Though  no  vapour  darkens  the  air,  it  becomes  so  gray  and 
thick  with  the  floating  clouds  of  impalpable  sand  that  it  is 
sometimes  necessary  to  use  candles  at  noonday.  Every 
green  leaf  is  instantly  shrivelled,  and  every  thing  formed 
of  wood  is  warped  and  cracked.  The  effect  of  these  winds 
on  the  animal  creation,  too,  is  not  less  pernicious,  some- 
times even  occasioning  immediate  death  by  sudden  squalls 
which  attack  the  victim  before  he  is  aware.  The  breathing 
becomes  quick  and  difficult,  the  pores  of  the  skin  are  closed, 
and  a feverish  habit  is  induced,  owing  to  suppressed  perspi- 
ration. The  increasing  heat  pervades  every  substance  ; 
and  water  itself,  no  longer  cool,  is  rendered  incapable  of 
mitigating  the  intolerable  sensation  by  which  the  whole 
body  is  oppressed.  Dead  silence  reigns  in  the  streets  ; the 
inhabitants,  by  confining  themselves  to  their  houses,  vainly 
attempt  to  elude  the  showers  of  dust,  which  is  so  fine  and 
penetrating  that,  according  to  the  oriental  expression,  it 
will  enter  an  egg  through  the  pores  of  the  shell.* 

These  are  the  hot  winds  of  the  desert,  termed  by  the 
Arabs  simoom , and  by  the  Turks  samiel , and  which  have 
so  often  proved  fatal  tp  whole  caravans,  and  even  to  large 
armies.  When  they  continue  longer  than  three  days  their 
effects  become  quite  insupportable,  especially  to  persons  of 
a full  habit  of  body.  It  is  worthy  of  notice,  at  the  same 
time,  that  the  southerly  breeze  which,  in  the  spring  of  the 
year,  is  attended  with  an  intolerable  heat,  is,  during  the 
winter,  noted  above  all  others  for  an  intense  and  penetrating 
cold.  In  the  latter  season  the  rays  of  the  sun  fall  more 

* Antis’s  Observations  on  Egypt ; Volney’s  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  61 
Dr.  Leyden  on  Egypt,  in  Murray’s  Africa. 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  EGYPT. 


45 


obliquely  on  the  desert,  and  the  current  of  air  which 
descends  on  Egypt  is  chilled  by  the  snowy  mountains  of 
Abyssinia. 

Such  are  the  principal  phenomena  which  characterize  the 
climate  of  Egypt, — a country  in  the  very  atmosphere  of 
which  nature  seems  to  have  adopted  new  and  singular 
arrangements.  In  that  country,  distinguished  by  an  un- 
common regularity  of  the  seasons  and  of  all  the  changes 
which  the  atmosphere  presents,  these  meteorological  facts 
were  first  ascertained  with  philosophical  accuracy.  But 
though  the  observations  of  the  ancient  sages  of  Thebes  and 
Memphis,  engraved  on  immense  masses  of  granite,  have 
defied  the  ravages  of  time  and  the  still  more  destructive 
hand  of  man,  we  can  only  view  the  characters  with  regret, 
and  lament  that  a wise  and  learned  people  may  utterly 
perish  before  the  monuments  of  their  power  and  science 
have  entirely  passed  away. 

Egypt  is  usually  divided  into  Upper  and  Lower,  the  lati- 
tude of  Cairo  presenting  in  our  day  the  line  of  demarcation. 
But  besides  this  distinction  there  is  another  of  great  an- 
tiquity, to  which  frequent  allusion  is  made  by  the  Greek 
and  Roman  anthors,  namely,  that  of  the  Delta,  the  Hepta- 
nomis,  and  the  Thebaid.  According  to  this  distribution,  the 
first  of  the  provinces  just  mentioned  occupied  the  seacoast 
of  the  Mediterranean  ; the  third  the  narrow  valley  of  Upper 
Egypt  ; while  to  the  second  was  allotted  the  intermediate 
space,  which  seems  to  have  been  divided  into  seven  districts 
or  cantons.  At  a later  period  when  Egypt  became  subject 
to  the  Romans,  the  Arcadia  of  that  people  corresponded 
nearly  to  the  ancient  Heptanomis ; and,  about  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  fourth  century,  the  eastern  division  of  the  Delta, 
between  Arabia  and  the  Phatnitic  branch  of  the  Nile,  as 
high  as  Heliopolis,  was  erected  into  a new  province  under 
the  name  of  Augustamnica.  In  modern  times  the  Arabs 
have  changed  the  classical  appellation  of  Thebaid  into  Said, 
or  the  high  country ; the  Heptanomis  into  Yostani ; and 
the  Delta  into  Bahari,  or  the  maritime  district. 

The  following  table  exhibits  a succinct  view  of  the  terri- 
torial distribution  of  Egypt  as  recognised  by  modern  geogra- 
phers and  the  actual  government  of  the  country 


46 


PHYSICAL  AND  POLITICAL 


I. THE  SAID,  OR  UPPER  EGYPT. 

1.  Province  of  Thebes. 

2.  « Djirgeh. 

3.  Siout. 

II.  THE  VOSTANI,  OR  MIDDLE  EGYPT. 

1.  Province  of  Fayoum. 

2.  Beni  Souef. 

3.  Minieh. 

III.  THE  BAHAR1,  OR  LOWER  EGYPT. 

1.  Province  of  Bahireh 

2.  Rosetta. 

3.  Damietta. 

4.  Gharbiyeh. 

5.  Menouf. 

6.  Mansoura. 

7.  Sharkey  eh. 

The  frequent  alteration  of  terms  by  nations  using  different 
languages  has  produced  considerable  obscurity  in  geo- 
graphical details,  as  well  as  a most  inconvenient  variety  in  the 
spelling  of  proper  names.  The  cities  which  flourished 
during  the  different  periods  of  the  Persian,  Grecian,  Roman, 
and  Saracenic  dynasties  were  not  only  erected  on  the  sites 
of  more  ancient  edifices,  but  under  the  Turkish  and  Mam- 
louk  domination,  their  positions  have  been  partially  changed ; 
and  thus,  splendid  towns  celebrated  in  history  have  been 
buried  in  their  own  ruins,  and  the  traveller  searches  for  them 
in  vain  within  the  circuit  of  their  ancient  walls. 

Nor  is  this  vicissitude  confined  to  the  works  of  human 
art.  Even  the  great  lineaments  of  nature  undergo  a grad- 
ual change,  and  thereby  render  the  descriptions  of  early 
authors  almost  unintelligible  to  the  modern  traveller.  The 
mouths  of  the  Nile,  for  example,  have  often  deserted  their 
channels,  and  the  river  has  entered  the  sea  at  different 
points.  The  seven  estuaries  known  to  the  ancients  were  : 
— 1.  The  Canopic  mouth,  corresponding  to  the  present  out- 
let from  the  Lake  Etko,  or,  according  to  others,  that  of  the 
Lake  of  Aboukir  or  Maadce  ; but  it  is  probable  that,  at  one 
time,  it  had  communications  with  the  sea  at  both  these 


GEOGRAPHY  OF  EGYPT. 


47 


places.  2.  The  Bolbitine  mouth  at  Rosetta.  3.  The  Se- 
lenitic, probably  the  opening  into  the  present  Lake  Burlos. 
4.  The  Phatnitic  or  Bucolic  at  Damietta.  5.  The  Mende- 
sian,  which  is  lost  in  the  Lake  Menzaleh,  the  mouth  of 
which  is  represented  by  that  of  Debeh.  6.  The  Tanitic  or 
Saitic,  which  seems  to  have  some  traces  of  its  termination 
to  the  east  of  the  Lake  Menzaleh,  under  the  modem  appel- 
lation of  Om-Faridje.  The  branch  of  the  Nile  which  con- 
veyed its  waters  to  the  sea  corresponds  to  the  canal  of 
Moez,  which  now  loses  itself  in  the  lake.  7.  The  Pelusiac, 
which  seems  to  be  represented  by  what  is  now  the  most 
easterly  mouth  of  Lake  Menzaleh,  where  the  ruins  of  Pe- 
lusium  are  still  visible.* 

Of  these  communications  with  the  sea,  the  Nile,  it  is  well 
known,  maintains  at  the  present  day  only  the  second  and 
the  fourth, — the  others  having  been  long  choked  up  with 
mud,  or  with  the  earth  which  falls  from  the  crumbling  banks. 
The  cultivation  of  the  Delta  has  been  contracted  in  a similar 
proportion  ; for  in  Egypt,  wherever  the  water  of  the  river 
is  withheld,  the  desert  extends  or  resumes  its  dominion, 
covering  the  finest  fields  with  barren  sand  and  useless  shrubs. 

Our  description  of  the  physical  aspect  of  this  singular 
country  would  not  be  complete  did  we  fail  to  mention  the 
Valley  of  the  Natron  Lakes,  and  that  of  the  Waterless 
River.  In  the  former  of  these  there  is  a series  of  six  basins, 
bounded  on  the  one  side  by  a lofty  ridge  of  secondary  rocks, 
which  perhaps  proves  the  means  of  concentrating  the  saline 
deposite  which  has  given  celebrity  to  the  place.  The  banks 
and  the  waters  are  covered  with  crystallizations,  consisting 
of  muriate  of  soda  or  sea-salt,  and  of  natron  or  carbonate 
of  soda.  When  a volume  of  water  contains  both  these 
salts,  the  muriate  of  soda  is  the  first  to  crystallize,  and  the 
carbonate  is  then  deposited  in  a separate  layer.  But  in 
some  instances,  the  two  crystallizations  are  observed  to 
choose,  without  any  assignable  cause,  distinct  localities  in 
different  parts  of  the  same  lake. 

The  Waterless  River,  called  by  the  Arabs  Bahr-bela- 
Maieh,  presents  itself  in  a valley  which  runs  parallel  to  the 
one  just  described,  and  is  separated  from  it  only  by  a line 

* Malte  Brun,  voL  iv.  p.  23 ; Mem.  sur  l’Egypte,  vol.  i.  p.  165;  M6m, 
sur  les  Bouches  du  Nil,  par  Dubois-Ayme. 


48 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


of  elevated  ground.  It  has  been  traced  from  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Mediterranean  through  the  desert  country  which 
stretches  to  the  westward  of  Fayoum.  In  the  sand  with 
which  its  channel  is  every  where  covered,  trunks  of  trees 
have  been  found  in  a state  of  complete  petrifaction,  and  also 
the  vertebral  bone  of  a large  fish.  Jasper,  quartz,  and 
petrosilex  have  likewise  been  observed  scattered  over  the 
surface  ; and  hence  some  learned  persons  have  thought 
that  these  fragments  of  rock,  which  do  not  belong  to  the 
contiguous  hills,  have  been  conveyed  thither  by  a branch  of 
the  Nile,  which  it  is  more  than  probable  once  passed  in  this 
direction,  and  discharged  itself  into  the  sea  at  some  distance 
to  the  westward  of  Alexandria.  But  this  question,  which 
belongs  more  properly  to  a subsequent  part  of  our  volume, 
will  be  discussed  at  some  length  in  connexion  with  the  opin- 
ions of  those  writers  who  have  most  recently  examined  the 
borders  of  Lake  Mceris.* 


CHAPTER  III. 

Civil  History  of  Ancient  Egypt. 

Obscurity  of  Egyptian  Annals — Variety  of  Hypotheses — Reign  of  Menes 
determined;  his  Actions — Account  of  Osymandias;  his  Palace  and 
Tomb — Chronological  Tables — Invasion  of  the  Shepherds — Quotation 
from  Manetho — Mistake  as  to  the  Israelites — Indian  Tradition  in 
regard  to  the  Conquest  of  Egypt  by  Pastoral  Chiefs — The  Origin  of 
the  Pyramids — Hatred  of  Shepherds  entertained  by  the  Egyptians  in 
time  of  Joseph — The  Reign  of  Mceris — Accession  of  Sesostris  ; his 
Exploits  ; Proofs  of  his  warlike  Expedition  ; the  Magnificence  of  his 
Buildings;  his  Epitaph — Invasion  by  Sabaco  the  Ethiopian  or  Abys- 
sinian—By  Sennacherib — By  Nebuchadnezzar — By  Cyrus — And  com- 
plete Subjugation  by  Cambyses — The  Persian  Government — Conquest 
of  Egypt  by  Alexander  the  Great — Ancient  Dynasties — The  Ptolemies — 
The  Romans — The  Saracens. 

It  is  our  intention  in  this  chapter  to  give  an  outline  of 
Egyptian  history  from  the  earliest  times  down  to  the  acces- 
sion of  the  Saracenic  princes, — an  epoch  at  which  the 


* Belzoni,  vol.  ii.  p.  183 ; Denon,  vol  i.  p.  224. 


ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


49 


power  and  splendour  of  the  more  ancient  governments  were 
oppressed  by  a weight  of  barbarism  which  has  not  yet  been 
removed. 

In  regard  to  this  interesting  subject,  we  may  confidently 
assert  that  there  is  no  portion  of  the  remoter  annals  of  the 
human  race  more  obscure  from  the  want  of  authentic  records, 
or  more  perplexed  by  groundless  conjecture  and  bold  specu- 
lation. He  who  begins  his  inquiries  with  the  establishment 
of  the  Egyptian  monarchy,  and  proposes  to  sail  down  the 
stream  of  time  accompanied  and  guided  by  the  old  histo- 
rians, soon  discovers  the  numerous  obstacles  which  must 
impede  his  course.  The  ancient  authors  from  whom  he 
seeks  information  require  of  him  to  carry  back  his  imagina- 
tion to  an  era  many  thousand  years  prior  to  the  existence 
of  all  written  deeds  ; and  they  then  gravely  introduce  him 
to  the  gods  and  demigods  who  had  once  condescended  to 
dwell  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  and  to  govern  the  fancied 
inhabitants  of  that  fertile  region. 

If,  impatient  of  the  fables  related  to  him  respecting  super- 
natural personages,  the  inquirer  should  ask  who  w as  the 
first  human  sovereign  who  reigned  over  Egypt,  he  is  en- 
couraged by  being  told  that  his  name  was  Menes,  and  that 
his  history  is  not  altogether  unknown.  But  he  soon  finds  out 
that  the  exploits  of  this  prince  greatly  resemble  the  achieve- 
ments of  the  god  Osiris,  and  that  the  limits  between  my- 
thology and  the  simple  annals  of  a mortal  race  are  not  yet 
fully  established.  Fatigued  with  vain  conjectures,  and  still 
unable  to  separate  facts  from  fiction,  he  may  resolve  to 
change  his  plan,  and  flatter  himself  with  the  hope  of  being 
able  to  thread  his  way  through  the  dark  labyrinth  of  Egyptian 
chronology.  Adopting  the  philosophical  rule,  he  deter- 
mines to  proceed  from  the  known  to  the  unknown  ; and, 
selecting  some  comparatively  recent  and  well-attested  fact, 
of  which  the  date  is  considered  as  certain,  he  obtains  pos- 
session of  one  end  of  the  chain,  wrhich  he  trusts  he  may 
succeed  in  tracing,  link  after  link,  until  he  shall  arrive  at 
the  other  extremity. 

But  this  method,  however  ingeniously  conceived,  has  not 
hitherto  been  attended  with  a corresponding  success.  The 
chronologer  pursues  his  way,  trusting  now  to  one  guide, 
and  at  another  time  to  a second,  who  appears  to  have 
opened  the  path  under  a clearer  light ; but,  unfortunately, 


50 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


he  soon. becomes  convinced  that  the  authorities  who  oppose 
him,  in  whatever  direction  he  may  choose  to  proceed,  are 
more  numerous  than  those  who  favour  him  with  their  aid, 
and  on  whose  reputation  he  had  thought  it  safe  to  rely. 
As  he  advances,  he  is  further  dismayed  hy  the  unwelcome 
discovery  that  all  his  guides  become  more  and  more  igno- 
rant, and  also  that  their  confidence  increases  in  proportion 
to  the  obscurity  in  which  they  are  enveloped.  Their  state- 
ments abound  with  fictions  sufficient  to  stagger  the  strong- 
est belief.  He  is  now  satisfied  that  absolute  truth  cannot 
be  obtained  on  such  uncertain  ground,  and  therefore  con- 
sents to  imitate  all  those  who  have  gone  before  him, — to 
build  conjectures  instead  of  establishing  facts  ; to  admit 
what  is  probable  where  he  cannot  find  demonstration  ; and, 
finally,  to  allow  what  is  possible  where  he  cannot  reach 
unquestionable  evidence.  His  difficulties  augment  as  he 
removes  farther  from  the  point  whence  he  had  originally 
started.  Like  the  traveller  who  sets  out  upon  a journey 
when  the  day  is  closing,  the  fight  grows  more  feeble  at 
every  step  he  takes,  and  the  shades  of  night  fall  blacker  and 
thicker  around  him,  until  he  is  at  length  shrouded  in  total 
darkness.* 

But  to  a certain  extent,  at  least,  the  history  of  ancient 
Egypt  can  be  placed  on  credible  grounds,  and  even  be  ren- 
dered capable  of  throwing  fight  upon  the  condition  of  con- 
temporary kingdoms.  We  must  at  once  relinquish  the  regal 
gods  and  the  thirty-six  thousand  years  of  their  government, 
as  only  the  indication  perhaps  of  some  physical  principle, 
or,  more  probably,  the  expression  of  a vast  astronomical 
cycle.  The  sun,  moon,  and  other  leaders  of  the  celestial 
host  may,  according  to  the  ancient  mythology,  be  supposed 
to  have  ruled  over  Egypt  before  it  became  fit  for  the  habita- 
tion of  mortals  ; or  the  authors  of  this  hypothesis  may  be 
thought  to  have  had  nothing  more  serious  in  view  than  the 
gratification  of  their  fancy  in  the  wilds  of  that  terra  incog- 
nita., which,  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe,  stretches  far  be- 
yond the  boundaries  of  authentic  history. 

But  as  the  reign  of  Menes  marks  the  limits  of  legitimate 
inquiry  in  this  interesting  field,  and  as  all  correct  notions  of 
Egyptian  chronology  must  rest  upon  the  determination  of 


See  “ Origines,”  by  Sir  William  Drummond,  vol.  ii.  p 25a 


ANCIENT  EGYPT 


51 


the  period  at  which  that  monarch  exercised  the  supreme 
power,  we  shall  lay  before  our  readers  an  abridged  view  df 
such  opinions  on  this  subject  as  seem  the  most  worthy  of 
their  attention.  Here,  we  need  not  add,  we  must  confine 
ourselves  to  mere  results  ; it  being  quite  inconsistent  both 
with  our  limits  and  our  object  to  enter  into  the  learned  ar- 
guments by  which  different  authors  have  laboured  to  fortify 
their  conclusions.  But  to  those  readers  who  are  desirous 
of  entering  more  deeply  into  the  question,  we  earnestly 
recommend  the  works  of  Hales  and  l)r.  Prichard,  the  latest 
and  unquestionably  the  ablest  writers  on  this  .obscure 
though  very  important  branch  of  historical  inquiry. 

Menes,  then,  began  his  reign, 

* According  to  Dr.  Hales  2412  years  B 

t Old  Chronicle 2231  

t Eratosthenes 2220  

$ Eusebius 2258  

|| ; — — Julius  Africanus 2218 

IT — Dr.  Prichard 2214  

As  the  actions  of  this  monarch  were  conveyed  to  pos- 
terity through  the  uncertain  channel  of  tradition,  little  reli- 
ance can  be  placed  upon  the  accuracy  of  the  details.  Hero- 
dotus informs  us  that  he  protected  from  the  inundations  of 
the  Nile  the  ground  upon  which  Memphis  was  afterward 
erected.  Before  his  age  the  river  flowed  close  under  the 
ridge  of  hills  which  borders  the  Libyan  desert,  whence,  it 
is  more  than  probable,  a large  branch  of  it,  at  least,  made 
its  way  through  the  valley  of  Fayoum  into  the  Mediterra- 
nean. To  prevent  this  deviation,  he  erected  a mound  about 
twelve  miles  south  from  the  future  capital  of  Egypt ; turned 
the  course  of  the  stream  towards  the  Delta ; and  led  it  to 
the  sea  at  an  equal  distance  from  the  elevated  ground  by 
which  on  either  side  the  country  is  bounded.  Menes  is 
moreover  said  to  have  been  a great  general,  to  have  made 
warlike  expeditions  into  foreign  countries,  and  to  have 
fallen  a prey  at  last  to  the  voracity  of  a hippopotamus. 

Among  the  principal  authorities  on  which  the  reign  of 
Menes  has  been  determined  is  the  following  statement  of 

* New  Analysis  of  Ancient  Chronology,  vol.  iv.  p.  418. 
t Ibid.  vol.  iv.  p.  407.  f Prichard’s  Egyptian  Antiquities. 

$ New  Analysis,  vol.  iv.  p.  417.  ||  Ibid. 

If  Egyptian  Antiquities,  p.  91. 


. C. 


| or  2262. 


52 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


Josephus,  who  had  better  means  of  becoming  acquainted 
with  the  works  of  Manetho  than  were  enjoyed  by  Syncel- 
lus,  Africanus,  or  Eusebius.  He  assures  Us  that  Menes 
lived  many  years  before  Abraham,  and  that  he  ruled  more 
than  1300  years  before  Solomon.*  Now  the  father  of  the 
faithful  was  born  2153,  and  the  son  of  David  ascended  the 
throne  of  Israel  1030  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
These  facts,  combined  with  the  account  which  is  given  in 
the  old  chronicle  of  the  dynasty  of  kings  which  proceeded 
from  Misraim  or  Misor,  seem  to  justify  the  conclusions  of 
modern  chronology. 

The  Greek  historian  further  mentions  that  the  priests 
recited  to  him,  from  books,  three  hundred  and  thirty  sove- 
reigns, successors  of  Menes,  among  whom  were  eighteen 
Ethiopian  princes  and  one  queen  called  Nitocris.  But  as 
none  of  these  monarchs  were  distinguished  by  any  acts  of 
magnificence  or  renown,  he  abstains  from  encumbering  his 
pages  with  the  unmeaning  catalogues  of  their  appellations 
and  titles.  He  makes  one  exception  in  favour  of  Mceris, 
famed  for  the  excavation  of  the  lake  which  still  bears  his 
name,  and  of  which  an  account  will  be  given  in  a subse- 
quent chapter. 

To  assist  the  recollection  of  the  reader  on  this  rather  in- 
tricate subject,  we  shall  abridge,  from  the  New  Analysis  of 
Chronology,  a list  of  the  kings  who  fill  up  the  space  be- 
tween the  accession  of  the  first  human  monarch  of  Egypt 
and  the  death  of  Mceris  : — 


FIRST  DYNASTY,  EGYPTIANS,  253  YEARS. 

Y.  B.  C. 

Menes  and  his  successors,  ending  with  Timaus 253 — 2412 

SECOND  DYNASTY,  SHEPHERD  KINGS,  260  YEARS. 

1.  Salatis,  Silites,  or  Nirmaryada 19 — 2159 

2.  Baion,  Byon,  or  Babya  44 — 2140 

3.  Apachnes,  Paehman,  or  Ruchma 37 — 2096 

First.  Pyramid  begun  about  2095 

Abraham  visits  Egypt  about 2077 

4.  Apophes 61 — 2059 

5.  Janias  or  Sethos 50 — 1998 

6.  Assis  or  Aseth 49 — 1948 

Expulsion  of  the  Shepherds 260 — 1899 


* Jud.  Antiq.  lib.  viii. 


ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


53 


THIRD  DYNASTY,  NATIVE  KINGS,  251  YEARS. 


Y.  B.  C. 

Alisphragmutliosis,  &c 27—1899 

Joseph  appointed  Governor  or  Regent 9 — 1872 

Jacob's  Family  settle  in  Gosheri 215 — 1863 

Death  of  Joseph 1792 

Queen  Nitocris . 1742 

Exode  of  the  Israelites  251 — 1648 

FOURTH  DYNASTY,  340  YEARS. 

1.  Amosis,  Tethmosis,  or  Thummosis 25 — 1648 

2.  Chebron 13—1623 

3.  Amenophis  I 20 — 1610 

4.  Alnesses 21—1589 

5.  Mephres 12—1567 

6.  Misphragmuthosis 25 — 1554 

7.  Thmosis  or  Tethmosis 9 — 1528 

8.  Amenophis  11 30—1518 

9.  Orus  nr  Horus 36 — 1488 

10.  Acenchris  . 12 — 1452 

11.  Rathosis 9—1440 

12.  Acencheres  I. 12 — 1431 

13.  Acencheres  II 20 — 1418 

14.  Armais  or  Harmais 4 — 1398 

15.  Rainesses- 1 — 1394 

16.  Harnesses 66 — 1393 

17.  Amenophis  III.  or  Mceris  19—1327 

Death  of  Mceris 340—1308* 


The  most  interesting  event  that  occurred  during  this  long 
interval  was  the  invasion  of  Egypt  by  the  Shepherds,  which, 
according  to  the  chronology  we  have  here  adopted,  took 
place  two  thousand  one  hundred  and  fifty-nine  years  before 
the  birth  of  Christ.  Manetho,  the  historian  already  men- 
tioned, inserted  in  his  work  a very  intelligible  notice  of  the 
misfortune  which  had  befallen  his  country  at  that  early  pe- 
riod ; the  accuracy  of  which  cannot  be  called  in  question, 
except  in  the  point  where  he  is  supposed  to  identify  the 
savage  invaders  from  the  East  with  the  peaceful  family  of 
Jacob,  who  were  invited  to  settle  in  the  land  of  Goshen. 
The  fragment  has  been  preserved  by  Josephus  in  his  tract 
against  Apion,  and  contains  the  following  statement : — 

“ We  had  formerly  a king  named  Timaus.  In  his  reign, 
God,  upon  what  account  I know  not,  was  offended  with  us  ; 

* Vol.  iv.  p.  418.  We  have  omitted  the  odd  months. 

E 2 


54 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


and  unexpectedly  men  from  the  East,  of  obscure  origin, 
boldly  invaded  the  kingdom  and  subdued  it  without  a con- 
test. Having  mastered  the  former  rulers,  they  barbarously 
burnt  the  cities,  demolished  the  temples  of  the  gods,  and 
treated  all  the  inhabitants  most  cruelly ; massacring  the 
men,  and  reducing  the  women  and  children  to  slavery. 
They  next  appointed  one  of  their  leaders  king,  whose  name 
was  Salatis.  He  resided  in  Memphis,  and  imposed  a trib- 
ute on  the  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  and  put  garrisons  in 
the  most  important  places.  But  chiefly  he  secured  the 
eastern  parts  of  the  country,  foreseeing  that  the  Assyrians, 
who  were  then  most  powerful,  would  be  tempted  to  invade 
the  kingdom  likewise.  Finding,  therefore,  in  the  Saite- 
nome,  a city  placed  most  conveniently  on  the  north  side  of 
the  Bubastic  channel,  which  in  an  ancient  theological  book 
is  called  Avaris,  he  repaired  and  fortified  it  very  strongly, 
and  garrisoned  it  with  two  hundred  and  forty  thousand  sol- 
diers. Hither  he  used  to  come  in  summer  to  furnish  them 
with  corn  and  pay,  and  he  carefully  disciplined  them  for  a 
terror  to  foreigners.  He  died  after  he  had  reigned  nineteen 
years.* 

“ The  next,  called  Baion,  reigned  44  years ; and  after 
him  Apachnes,  36  years  and  three  months ; then  Apophes, 
61  years  ; and  Janias,  50  years  and  one  month  ; and  after 
him  Assis,  49  years  and  two  months.  These  six  were  their 
first  kings,  who  were  continually  at  war  with  the  Egyptians, 
and  wished  of  all  things  to  eradicate  them. 

“ At  length  the  native  Egyptian  princes  rebelled  against 
these  tyrants,  and,  after  a tedious  warfare,  drove  them  out 
of  the  rest  of  Egypt,  and  shut  them  up  in  Avaris,  where 
they  had  collected. all  their  cattle  and  plunder,  and  besieged 
them  with  an  army  of  480,000  men.  But,  despairing  of 
success,  the  Egyptians  concluded  a treaty  with  them,  and 
they  were  suffered  to  depart  unmolested  from  Egypt,  with 
all  their  households,  amounting  to  240,000  souls,  and  their 
cattle.  Accordingly  they  crossed  the  desert ; but  being 
afraid  to  return  home  on  account  of  the  Assyrian  power, 
which  then  held  Asia  in  subjection,  they  settled  in  the  coun- 
try of  Judsea,  and  there  built  Jerusalem.” 

Josephus  imagined  that  this  narrative  describes  the  his- 

* Avaris,  or  Abaris,  “ the  Pass,"  was  afterward  called  Pelusium. 


ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


55 


to ry  of  his  own  ancestors,  the  children  of  Israel.  But  it  is 
much  more  probable  that  the  people  who  were  thus  expelled 
from  Egypt  were  the  fathers  of  the  Philistines,  who  occu- 
pied the  eastern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  occasion- 
ally extended  their  power  as  far  as  the  banks  of  the  Eu- 
phrates. Every  one  knows  that.,  in  the  language  of  Western 
Asia,  the  term  pali  denotes  shepherds,  and  stun  or  sthan 
means  land  ; and  accordingly  the  compound  word  Pali-stan, 
literally  signifies  Shepherd-land,  or  the  country  of  shep- 
herds. It  is  therefore  extremely  probable  that  the  warlike 
nation  who  so  frequently  disputed  with  the  descendants  of 
Abraham  the  possession  of  the  Syrian  border  were  the  pro- 
geny of  the  royal  herdsmen  who  so  long  subjected  to  their 
thrall  the  rich  territory  of  Lower  and  Middle  Egypt. 

The  remembrance  of  the  Shepherd  expedition  is  not  yet 
extinct  even  among  the  tribes  of  Central  India.  In  one  of 
the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindoos,  quoted  by  Captain  Wil- 
ford,  a record  is  preserved  of  two  remarkable  migrations 
from  the  East  in  remote  times;  first  of  the  Yadavas,  or 
“ sacred  race,”  and  afterward  of  the  Pali  or  Shepherds. 
These  last,  we  are  told,  were  a powerful  tribe,  who,  in  an- 
cient days,  governed  the  whole  country,  from  the  Indus  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Ganges,  and  are  called  Pali-bothri  by 
Pliny,  and  Pali-putras  in  the  annals  of  Hindoostan.  They 
were  besides  an  active,  enterprising,  and  roving  people, 
who,  by  conquest  and  colonization,  gradually  spread  them- 
selves over  a great  part  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe.  Cross- 
ing from  the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  they  took  possession 
of  Arabia,  as  well  as  of  the  lands  on  the  western  shore  of 
the  Red  Sea  ; in  the  latter  their  country  was,  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  called  Barbaria.  .This  term  was  derived  from 
berber , a shepherd,  according  to  Bruce,  who  describes  them 
as  a distinct  race  from  the  natives,  with  long  hair  and  dark 
complexions,  living  in  tents,  and  shifting  their  cattle  from 
place  to  place  for  the  convenience  of  pasturage.  They  seem, 
in  fact,  to  be  the  eastern  Ethiopians,  as  distinguished  from 
the  western  both  by  Homer  and  Herodotus.* 

It  is  well  known  that  the  historian  just  quoted  describes 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Syrian  Palestine  as  having,  according 

‘Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  iii.  p.  46 ; Bruce’s  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  21 ; 
Iliad,  i.  v.  423 ; Odysa.  i.  v.  22 ; Herod,  lib.  vii. 


56 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


to  their  own  account,  migrated  from  the  Erythraean  Sea  to 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  where  they  afterward  ap- 
plied themselves  to  navigation  and  commerce.  How  exten- 
sively they  spread  themselves  both  in  Europe  and  Asia 
appears  from  the  cities  and  places  which  still  retain  their 
name.  Thus,  a Palestine,  or  Palesthan,  was  found  on  the 
banks  of  the  Tigris,  most  probably  their  original  settlement; 
the  town  of  Paliputra  stood  on  the  Hellespont ; the  river 
Strymon  in  Thrace  was  surnamed  Palestinus  ; the  Pales- 
tini  and  the  town  Philistia  were  situated  on  the  river  Po  in 
Italy  ; and  the  god  of  shepherds,  among  the  Latins,  was 
denominated  Pales.* 

The  following  extract  from  an  article  in  the  Asiatic  Re- 
searches, contributed  by  the  learned  soldier  already  named, 
will  tend  to  strengthen  the  opinion  now  universally  enter- 
tained by  the  ablest  writers,  that  the  shepherds  who  invaded 
Egypt  had  migrated  from  a distant  country  in  the  East : — 

“ An  ancient  king,  called  Chatura-Yana,  passed  a hun- 
dred years  in  a cavern  of  Chrishna-giri,  the  Black  Moun- 
tain, on  the  banks  of  the  Cali,  performing  the  most  rigorous 
acts  of  devotion.  At  length  Vishnu  appeared  to  him,  and 
promised  him  that  he  should  have  a son,  whom  he  was  to 
name  Tamovatsa.  This  prince  when  he  succeeded  his 
father  was  warlike  and  ambitious,  but  wise  and  devout.  He 
prayed  to  Vishnu  to  enlarge  his  ejnpire,  and  the  god  granted 
his  request.  Hearing  that  Misra-sthan  (the  land  of  Egypt) 
was  governed  by  a powerful  but  unjust  prince  called  Nir- 
maryada,  he,  with  a chosen  army,  invaded  that  country 
without  any  declaration  of  war,  and  began  to  administer 
justice  among  the  people,  to  give  them  a specimen  of  a good 
king  ; and  when  Nirmaryada  sent  to  expostulate,  he  treated 
his  remonstrance  with  disdain.  This  brought  on  a bloody 
battle  of  three  days,  in  which  the  Egyptian  king  was  killed. 
The  conqueror,  who  fought  like  another  Parasa  Rama, 
then  took  possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Misra,  and  governed 
with  perfect  equity.  Babya  Vatsa,  his  son,  devoted  himself 
to  religion,  and  resigned  his  crown  to  his  son  Rucma  Vatsa, 
who  tenderly  loved  his  people,  and  so  highly  improved  his 
country  that,  from  his  just  revenues,  he  amassed  an  in- 
credible treasure.  His  wealth  was  so  great  that  he  raised 

* Herod,  lib.  i.  c.  5 ; Hales’s  New  Analysis,  vol.  iv.  p.  427. 


ANCIENT  EGYPT.  57 

three  mountains,  called  Rucm-adri,  Rujat-adri,  and  Retu- 
adri,  or  the  mountain  of  gold,  of  silver,  and  of  gems.”* 

In  this  legend,  says  Dr.  Hales,  we  trace  the  distorted 
features  of  the  Egyptian  account.  By  an  interchange  of 
characters,  Tamo  is  the  Timaus  of  Manetho,  a quiet  and 
peaceable  prince,  who  wras  invaded  without  provocation  by 
this  Nirmaryada  of  Cushite  race,  called  Salatis  by  Manetho, 
and  Silites  by  Syncellus.  His  son  Babya  is  evidently  the 
Baion  of  Manetho.  The  third  king  was  surnamed  Ruchma 
from  his  immense  wealth,  which  he  collected  by  oppressing 
the  Egyptians,  though  he  tenderly  loved  his  own  people  the 
Shepherds.  Wishing  either  to  extirpate  the  natives  or  to 
break  down  their  spirits  by  hard  and  incessant  labour,  he 
employed  them  in  constructing  those  stupendous  monu- 
ments of  ancient  ostentation  and  tyranny.  The  Pyramids, 
which  are  obviously  the  mountains  indicated  in  the  Hindoo 
records,  were,  it  is  presumed,  originally  cased  with  yellow, 
white,  or  spotted  marbles,  brought  from  the  quarries  of 
Arabia. 

From  this  Hindoo  record  we  seem  fully  warranted  in 
ascribing  the  building  of  the  first  and  greatest  pyramid  to 
Apachnes,  the  third  of  the  Shepherd  kings^  and  of  the  rest 
to  his  successors.  This  conclusion  is  still  further  confirmed 
by  the  tradition  of  the  native  Egyptians,  communicated  to 
Herodotus,  that  “ they  were  built  by  one  Philitis,  a shep- 
herd, who  kept  his  cattle  in  those  parts,  and  whose  memory 
was  held  in  such  abhorrence  that  the  inhabitants  would  not 
even  repeat  his  name  nor  that  of  his  brother  who  succeeded 
him.”  It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  the  vindictive  feel- 
ing of  an  oppressed  people  has  preserved  the  original  title 
of  the  Shepherds  in  the  foreign  term  Philitis;  the  etymology 
of  which,  as  derived  from  the  Sanscrit  Pali,  and  branching 
out  into  all  the  epithets  applied  to  a celebrated  people  in 
Syria,  we  have  already  endeavoured  to  explain,  t 

The  hostile  spirit  entertained  by  the  Egyptians  against 
their  barbarian  conquerors  continued  unabated  in  the  age 
of  the  patriarch  Joseph,  when  shepherds  were  still  held  as 
an  “ abomination,” — a fact  which  of  itself  goes  far  to  prove 

* Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  iii.  p.  225. 

t See  above,  page  55.— New  Analysis  of  Ancient  Chronology,  vol.  iv. 
p.  428;  Herodotus,  book  ii.  c.  128. 


58 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OR 


that  the  celebrated  inroad  of  the  Pastoral  kings  must  have 
taken  place  before  this  favourite  son  of  Jacob  was  carried 
as  a slave  into  the  house  of  Potiphar.  But  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  the  exode  of  the  Israelites  should  have  been 
confounded  by  historians  with  the  expulsion  of  the  more 
ancient  invaders.  The  Hebrews  were  employed  in  tending 
cattle  as  well  as  the  oriental  Pali ; and,  in  other  respects, 
they  were  not  less  disliked  by  the  people,  to  whom  their 
increasing  numbers  had  rendered  them  formidable.  The 
military  array,  too,  assumed  by  the  followers  of  Moses,  and 
the  pursuit  directed  by  the  Egyptian  monarch  in  person, 
throw  an  air  of  resemblance  over  the  two  events.  But  it  is 
manifest,  notwithstanding,  that  the  family  of  Jacob  cannot 
be  identified  with  that  warlike  host  which  subdued  Lower 
Egypt,  overturned  the  throne  of  Memphis,  and  placed  the 
sceptre  in  the  hands  of  a powerful  dynasty  of  kings,  who 
exercised  supreme  power  during  the  long  period  of  two  hun- 
dred and  sixty  years.  The  departure  of  the  Israelites  did 
not  take  place  until  the  lapse  of  two  centuries  and  a half  had 
again  consolidated  the  government  of  the  Pharaohs,  and 
improved  the  resources  of  the  nation.  But  the  true  exode 
of  the  chosem people,  with  all  the  demonstrations  of  miracu- 
lous agency  by  which  it  was  accomplished,  is  too  well 
known  to  require  from  us  even  the  most  abbreviated  narra- 
tive ; we  therefore  proceed  to  complete  the  outline  of  Egyp- 
tian history  in  a department  not  quite  so  familiar  to  the 
common  reader. 

Passing  over  Moeris,  whose  peaceful  labours  will  be  de- 
scribed hereafter,  we  arrive  at  the  era  of  his  renowned  son, 
the  accomplished  and  victorious  Sesostris.  In  the  history 
of  this  hero  fiction  has  exhausted  all  her  powers  to  darken 
and  exaggerate  ; and  the  little  light  which  remained  to  guide 
us  to  the  appreciation  of  facts  has  been  nearly  all  obscured 
by  the  clouds  of  chronological  error  which,  from  time  to 
time,  have  been  spread  over  his  reign.  In  placing  his  ac- 
cession at  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  before 
Christ,  we  follow  Hales,  being  satisfied  that  his  conclusions 
are  worthy  of  greater  confidence  than  those  of  every  other 
writer  who  preceded  him  in  the  study  of  time  ; and  as  our 
object  in  this  chapter  is  to  fix  dates  rather  than  to  describe 
actions,  we  shall  mention  the  grounds  upon  which  we  believe 
that  Sesostris  ascended  the  throae  of  Egypt  at  the  epoch 


ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


59 


just  stated.  Such  an  exposition  will  appear  more  necessary 
when  it  is  considered  that  Eusebius  imagined  this  conqueror 
to  be  the  immediate  successor  of  the  Pharaoh  who  was 
drowned  in  the  Red  Sea  at  the  exode  of  the  Israelites,  and 
that  he  began  his  famous  expedition  while  the  descendants 
of  Jacob  were  still  wandering  in  the  desert  of  Arabia.  In 
this  untenable  opinion  the  Bishop  of  Caesarea  has  been  fol- 
lowed by  Usher  and  Playfair.  Sir  John  Marsham,  op  the 
other  hand,  identified  Sesostris  with  the  Shishak  of  Scripture 
who  invaded  Judaea, — a notion  which  received  the  concur- 
rence of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  and  has  been  adopted  by  many 
writers  of  inferior  reputation.  That  the  reign  of  the  son  of 
Moeris  belongs  to  an  intermediate  period  may  be  proved 
from  the  following  considerations  : — 

Herodotus  relates  that  Sesostris  was  succeeded  by  Pheron 
and  this  last  by  Proteus,  in  whose  time  Troy  was  taken ; 
and,  according  to  Manetho,  Sesothis  was  succeeded  by 
Rampses,  and  Rampses  by  Ramesses,  in  whose  reign  also 
Troy  was  taken.  Therefore  Sesothis  and  Sesostris  were 
obviously  the  same  person  ; and  it  is  equally  clear  that  his 
accession  could  not  have  been  much  earlier  than  1283,  or  a 
century  before  the  destruction  of  Troy,  reckoning  three 
reigns  equivalent  to  three  mean  generations.  This  agrees 
sufficiently  Avith  the  date  which  we  have  selected. 

Again,  in  his  fourth  book,  Herodotus  states  that  Targitaus 
founded  the  Scythian  kingdom  about  a thousand  years  at 
most  before  the  invasion  of  Darius  Hystaspes,  or,  in  other 
words,  about  1508  before  the  Christian  era.  But  we  learn 
from  the  historian  Justin  that  Timaus,  the  sixth  king  in 
succession  from  Targitaus,  encountered  Sesostris,  and 
checked  or  defeated  him’ at  the  river  Phasis.  Reckoning 
these  six  reigns  equivalent  to  mean  generations,  or  200 
years,  the  accession  of  Sesostris  could  not  be  earlier  than 
1308  B.  C. 

In  the  third  place,  Herodotus  mentions  that  Sesostris 
founded  the  kingdom  of  Colchis  near  Pontus,  and  left  a 
colony  there,  consisting  of  such  of  his  soldiers  as  were  weary 
of  service  ; and  we  are  informed  by  Apollonius  Rhodius  that 
the  posterity  of  the  Egyptian  governor  subsisted  at  JEn,  the 
capital  of  Colchis,  for  many  generations.  This  governor 
was  the  father  of  -Eetes,  who  was  the  father  of  Medea,  the 
mistress  of  Jason  in  the  Argonautic  expedition,  which,  it  is 


80 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


well  known  took  place  about  1225  E.  C.;  that  is,  seventy- 
four  years  after  Sesostris  returned  from  his  Asiatic  cam- 
paigns.* 

The  confirmation  thus  afforded  to  the  Egyptian  chro- 
nology  by  historical  facts,  incidentally  mentioned  by  Grecian 
writers,  is  extremely  satisfactory,  and  illustrates  the  sound- 
ness of  the  principle  upon  which  our  system  is  constructed. 
It  is  deserving  of  notice,  at  the  same  time,  that  the  hero 
whose  exploits  fill  so  large  a space  in  the  traditional  story 
of  ancient  Egypt  has  been  placed,  by  the  researches  of 
Champollion,  at  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century 
before  the  reign  of  Augustus  Caesar,  and  thereby  most  dis- 
tinctly identified  with  the  great  Sesostris,  the  conqueror  of 
the  world. 

Diodorus  is  our  principal  authority  for  the  warlike 
achievements  of  this  celebrated  monarch.  His  first  expe- 
dition after  he  came  to  the  throne  was  against  the  Abys- 
sinians,  whom  he  reduced  to  the  condition  of  tributaries.  He 
then  turned  his  arms  against  the  nations  who  dwelt  on  either 
shore  of  the  Red  Sea,  advanced  along  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
finally,  if  we  may  trust  to  the  accuracy  of  our  historian, 
marched  at  the  head  of  his  troops  into  India,  and  even 
crossed  the  Ganges.  Directing  his  face  towards  Upper 
Asia,  he  next  subdued  the  Assyrians  and  Medes  ; whence, 
passing  to  the  confines  of  Europe,  be  ravaged  the  land  of 
the  Scythians,  until  he  sustained  the  reverse  above  alluded 
to  at  the  hands  of  Timaus,  their  valiant  prince,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Phasis.  Want  of  provisions,  and  the  impenetrable 
nature  of  the  country  which  defended  the  approaches  to  an- 
cient Thrace,  compelled  him  to  relinquish  his  European 
campaign.  He  accordingly  returned  to  Egypt  in  1299  B.  C., 
being  the  ninth  year  of  his  military  enterprise. 

Making  due  allowance  for  the  exaggeration  which  always 
takes  the  place  of  authentic  records,  we  are  nevertheless 
disposed  to  maintain  that  the  history  of  Sesostris  cannot  be 
wholly  reduced  to  fiction,  nor  ascribed  entirely  to  the  mytho- 
logical wanderings  of  Bacchus  or  Osiris.  We  are  assured, 
on  the  personal  evidence  of  Herodotus  and  Strabo,  that  the 
pillars  erected  by  the  Egyptian  leader  still  remained  in  their 

* Herod,  book  ii.  e.  103 ; book  iv.  c.  5,  6,  7;  Justin,  lib.  L c.  1 ; ApoL 
Rhod . lib.  iv.  p.  27SL;  Hales,  vol.  iv.  p.  433. 


ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


61 


days,  and  even  that  they  were  actually  inspected  by  them 
in  Syria,  Palestine,  Arabia,  and  Ethiopia.  The  inscription 
which  these  proud  monuments  every  where  bore  was  to  the 
following  effect : — 

“ Sesostris,  King  of  Kings,  and  Lord  of  Lords,  subdued  this  country 
by  his  arms.” 

Another  circumstance  corroborative  of  the  general  accu- 
racy of  the  old  annalists  has  been  already  mentioned, — the 
establishment  of  an  Egyptian  colony  in  the  province  of  Col- 
chis. The  descendants  of  this  military  association,  pre- 
senting the  dark  complexion  and  woolly  hair  of  Africa,  were 
long  distinguishable  from  the  natives  of  the  district  among 
whom  they  dwelt.  Nay,  it  is  possible,  we  believe,  at  the 
present  day,  to  find  among  the  Circassians  certain  families 
whose  blood  might  be  traced  to  the  soldiers  of  Sesostris,  and 
whose  features  still  verify  the  traditional  affinity  which  con- 
nects them  with  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  Nile. 

It  is  usual,  in  all  countries,  that  the  fame  of  a popular 
monarch  shall  be  increased  by  having  ascribed  to  him,  not 
only  all  the  heroic  deeds  which  have  been  transmitted  by 
the  chroniclers  of  the  olden  time,  but  that  he  shall  be  re- 
garded by  the  multitude  as  the  founder  of  all  the  magnificent 
palaces  and  gorgeous  temples  of  which  the  remains  still 
continue  to  testify  that  their  nation  was  once  wealthy  and 
powerful.  On  this  account  it  is  not  improbable  that  Sesostris, 
under  the  several  names  or  titles  of  Osymandias,  Ramesses, 
Sethosis,  and  Sethon,  has  had  attributed  to  him  the  merit 
of  erecting  several  splendid  edifices  which  are  due  to  sove- 
reigns of  a less  imposing  celebrity.  At  all  events,  it  is  not 
doubted  by  any  one  that  both  Memphis  and  Thebes  owed 
some  of  their  finest  structures  to  the  conqueror  of  Asia; 
and  it  is  even  recorded  by  his  panegyrists,  that  the  riches 
and  the  immense  number  of  prisoners  which  crowned  his 
successes  in  the  East  enabled  him  to  decorate  all  the  towns 
of  Egypt  without  exacting  from  his  native  subjects  any 
portion  of  their  labour  or  revenue.  Memphis,  the  new 
capital,  was  enlarged  and  ornamented  with  the  most  profuse 
expenditure.  The  statues,  the  temples,  and  the  obelisks 
which  adorned  it  are  described  by  historians  in  their  most 
pompous  language  ; but  the  infelicity  of  its  situation,  which 


62 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


exposed  it  to  tlie  inundations  of  the  Nile,  has  so  completely 
obliterated  all  traces  of  its  existence  as  to  have-  created  a 
question  among  antiquaries  as  to  the  precise  spot  on  which 
it  stood.  Thebes,  on  the  contrary,  which  enjoyed  a more 
secure  position,  and  was  perhaps  built  of  more  lasting  mate- 
rials, displays  at  the  present  day  the  magnificence  of  her 
princes,  combined  with  the  learning  and  taste  which  distin- 
guished her  inhabitants. 

The  Palace,  or  Sepulchral  Temple  (for  the  ruins  of  the  ■ 
two  have  been  confounded),  appears  to  have  been  an  edifice  of 
exquisite  workmanship  as  well  as  of  vast  extent.  In  front 
there  was  a court  of  immense  size ; adjoining  which  there 
arose  a portico  four  hundred  feet  long,  the  roof  of  which  was 
supported  by  figures  fifteen  cubits  in  height.  This  portico 
led  into  another  court  similar  to  the  first,  but  more  superb, 
and  adorned  with  statues  of  great  magnitude,  which  are  said 
to  have  represented  the  king  and  certain  members  of  his 
family.  Amid  a numerous  succession  of  halls  and  galleries 
the  chisel  had  sculptured  with  wonderful  art  the  triumphs 
of  the  sovereign,  the  sacrifices  which  he  had  offered,  the 
administration  of  justice  in  his  courts  of  law,  and  such 
other  functions  as  were  appropriated  to  the  head  of  a great 
nation.  But ' the  tomb,  properly  so  called,  is  especially 
remarkable  for  the  astronomical  emblems  which  it  exhibits. 

It  is  encompassed  with  a golden  circle  three  hundred  and 
sixty-five  cubits  in  circumference,  to  represent  the  number 
of  days  comprehended  in  the  year.  The  rising  and  setting 
of  the  stars  are  likewise  depicted  with  considerable  accu- 
racy, and  show  that  great  attention  was  already  paid  to  the 
motions  and  periods  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  Thus  it  is 
rendered  manifest,  that  whatever  doubt  may  exist  as  to  the 
identity  of  Sesostris  and  Osymandias,  or  in  regard  to  the 
period  at  which  one  or  other  ascended  the  throne,  the  light 
of  civilization  and  the  improvement  of  the  arts  had  made 
great  progress  in  Upper  Egypt  more  than  thirteen  centuries 
before  the  Christian  era.  The  statue  of  the  monarch  him- 
self represented  in  a sitting  posture,  was  considered  by  the 
ancients  as  the  largest  in  the  country.  The  foot  alone  was 
seven  cubits  in  length ; and  the  following  epitaph  appro- 
priated this  gigantic  work  of  art  to  the  renowned  commander 
whose  name  it  was  meant  to  perpetuate  : — 


ANCIENT  EGYPT.  63 

“lam  Osymandias,  King  of  Kings  ; if  any  one  desire  to  know  what  a 
prince  I am,  and  where  I lie,  let  him  excel  my  exploits.” 

The  successors  of  this  great  prince,  for  several  genera- 
tions, did  not  perform  any  remarkable  action,  nor  allow  their 
ambitious  views  to  extend  beyond  the  limits  of  their  native 
kingdom.  Perhaps  it  might  be  said  that  the  power  of 
Egypt  was  not  more  than  sufficient  to  defend  her  own  bor- 
ders against  the  erratic  hordes  who  constantly  threatened 
her  on  the  east,  and  the  more  regular  armaments  of  Abys- 
sinia, which  occasionally  made  an  inroad  from  the  south. 
About  770  B.  C.  Sabaco  the  Ethiopian  descended  the  Nile, 
and  drove  Anysis  from  the  throne.  Sixty  years  later,  Sen- 
nacherib, King  of  Assyria,  meditated  the  conquest  of  the 
same  country,  and  had  actually  entered  its  territories,  when 
his  immense  host  was  destroyed  by  a Divine  visitation. 

Disgusted  with  the  weakness  or  misfortune  of  their 
sovereigns,  the  Egyptians  made  the  experiment  of  an 
oligarchy  of  twelve  governors,  who  directed  the  administra- 
tion about  fifteen  years.  But,  in  619  B.  C.,  Pharaoh  Necho 
was  elevated  to  an  undivided  throne.  His  feign  is  remark- 
able for  the  success  he  obtained  against  Jerusalem,  'which 
he  took,  and  against  the  good  prince  Josiah,  whom  he  slew. 
He  made  several  attempts  to  connect,  for  the  purposes  of 
commerce,  the  Nile  with  the  Red  Sea  ; and  afterward  ac- 
complished what  must  have  been  then  esteemed  the  still 
more  arduous  enterprise  of  circumnavigating  Africa,  from 
the  Strait  of  Babelmandeb  to  the  Mediterranean. 

About  this  period  the  Assyrian  monarchy,  which  had 
acquired  an  ascendant  over  all  the  neighbouring  nations 
from  the  Euphrates  to  the  shores  of  the  Great  Sea,  became 
formidable  also  to  Egypt.  Nebuchadnezzar  on  more  than 
one  occasion  made  the  weight  of  his  power  to~be  felt  on  the 
banks  of  the  Nile  ; but  the  conquest  of  the  whole  of  that 
country  was  reserved  for  the  great  Cyrus,  who  marshalled 
under  his  standard  nearly  all  the  states  of  Western  Asia. 
It  appears,  however,  that  the  liberal  policy  of  this  famed 
warrior  restored  to  the  Egyptians,  as  well  as  to  the  Jews, 
a certain  degree  of  national  independence, — a boon  which 
the  former  were  thought  to  have  abused  so  much  that  one 
of  the  first  measures  adopted  by  his  successor  had  for  its 
object  their  entire  and  permanent  subjugation. 


64 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


The  effects  produced  upon  Egypt  by  the  victories  of 
Cambyses  are  too  important  to  be  passed  over  with  so  slight 
a notice  as  that  now  given.  It  should  seem  that  the  way 
was  paved  for  him  by  the  treachery  of  two  great  officers, 
who  sought  revenge  for  a personal  insult  by  throwing  open 
the  kingdom  to  a foreign  enemy.  When,  however,  the 
Persian  monarch  appeared  before  Pelusium,  he  found  that 
preparations  had  been  made  for  a vigorous  resistance  ; but, 
availing  himself  of  the  miserable  superstition  of  the  garrison, 
he  placed  their  sacred  animals  in  front  of  his  army,  and 
advanced  to  the  attack.  The  city  surrendered  without 
opposition.  A general  engagement,  which  ensued  imme- 
diately afterward,  terminated  in  the  total  discomfiture  of 
Psammenitus  and  the  reduction  of  Memphis.  The  con- 
queror disgraced  his  triumph  by  the  most  wanton  cruelties, 
and  particularly  by  putting  to  death  the  son  of  the  king, 
together  with  two  thousand  individuals  of  high  rank.  He 
also  gave  vent  to  his  rage  against  the  priests  and  religion 
of  the  country,  on  suspicion  that  they  were  employed  to 
undermine  his  * authority.  Regardless  of  public  opinion, 
he  gave  orders  to  slay  the  bull  Apis,  the  object  of  so  much 
veneration  among  all  classes  ; and,  because  the  magistrates 
and  guardians  of  the  temple  interposed  to  prevent  this  hor- 
rible sacrilege,  he  slew  the  one  and  scourged  the  other. 
A similar  feeling  dictated  the  mad  attempt  to  seize  the 
consecrated  fane  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  situated  in  the  Greater 
Oasis.  The  loss  of  half  his  army,  the  disaffection. of  the 
remainder,  and  the  universal  hatred  of  his  new  subjects, 
compelled  him  to  return  to  Persia,  where  he  soon  afterward 
became  the  victim  of  accident  or  of  conspiracy. 

The  government  of  Persia,  interrupted  only  by  a series 
of  unsuccessful  revolts,  was  maintained  during  more  than 
two  hundred  years  ; at  the  end  of  which  Alexander  the 
Great,  who  soon  afterward  wrested  from  the  hands  of 
Darius  the  sceptre  of  the  empire  itself,  took  possession  of 
the  kingdom  of  the  Pharaohs,  now  one  of  its  most  remote 
provinces. 

Before  we  proceed  to  the  history  of  the  Grecian  rulers, 
we  shall  present  a tabular  view  of  the  several  dynasties  from 
the  death  of  Mceris  to  the  accession  of  the  first  Ptolemy 


ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


65 


FIFTH  DYNASTY,  342  YEARS. 


1.  Sethos,  Sesostris,  or  Osymandias 33—1308 

2.  Rampses  or  Pheron 61—1275 

3.  Cetes,  Proteus,  or  Ramesses 50—1214 

4.  Amenophis  IV 40—1164 

5.  Rampsinites 42 — 1124 

6.  Cheops  or  Chemmis 50 — 1082 

7.  Cephrenes,  Cephres,  or  Sesah 56—1032 

8.  Mycerinus  or  Cherinus . 10—  976 

His  death 342—  966 

SIXTH  DYNASTY,  293  YEARS. 

A chasm 151—966 

1.  Bocchoris  or  Asychis 44—815 

2.  Anysis 2—771 

3.  Sabacon  or  So  1 50—769 

Anysis  again  ( 6—719 

4.  Sebecon  or  Sethos » 40 — 713 

Sennacherib  invades  Egypt 711 

End  of  the  period : 293—673 

6EVENTH  DYNASTY,  148  YEARS. 

1.  Twelve  contemporary  kings 15—673 

2.  Psammeticus  I 39—658 

3.  Nekus  or  Pharaoh  Necho 16—619 

4.  Psammis 6—603 

5.  Apries  or  Pharaoh  Hophra 28—597 

6.  Amasis 44 — 569 

Cyrus  conquers  Egypt 535 

7.  Psammenitus.  First  revolt  of  Egypt,  (6  mo.) 525 


148 

EIGHTH  DYNASTY,  PERSIAN  KINGS,  112  YEARS. 

1.  Cambyses  reduces  Egypt  > 

First  Persian  Administration  \ 

2.  Darius  Hystaspes.  Second  revolt  of  Egypt 

3.  Xerxes  reduces  Egypt  { 

Second  Persian  Administration  \ ' ' * 

4.  Artaxerxes  Longimanus.  Third  revolt 

Reduces  Egypt  > 

Third  Persian  Administration  J 
•Herodotus  visits  Egypt 

Darius  Nothus.  Fourth  revolt 112—413 

F 2 


38-  525 

3- 487 
24—484 

4— 460 
43-456 

448 


66 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


NINTH  DYNASTY,  EGYPTIAN  KINGS,  81  YEARS. 

1.  Amyrtaeus 

2.  Pausiris 

3.  Psammeticus  II 

4.  Nephereus 

5.  Acoris 

6.  Nectanebus 

7.  Tachus  or  Tacos 

8.  Nectanebus 

Ochus  reduces  Egypt  ) 

Fourth  Persian  Administration  $ 


6-407 

6—401 

6—396 

14—389 

12-375 

2—363 

11-361 

18-350 


Alexander  conquers’Egypt. 


81—332 


Upon  the  division  of  the  Persian  empire,  Egypt  fell  to 
Ptolemy  Lagus,  one  of  Alexander’s  generals,  who,  when 
he  ascended  the  throne,  assumed  the  cognomen  of  Soter. 
Our  limits  will  not  permit  us  to  describe  at  length  the 
character  of  this  prince,  nor  to  set  forth  the  numerous 
obligations  which  literature  and  philosophy  continue  to  bear 
to  his  memory.  His  establishment  of  the  celebrated  Alex- 
andrian Library,  and  his  marked  encouragement  of  men  of 
letters,  are  too  well  known  to  require  illustration  ; and  per- 
haps the  royal  munificence  which  he  displayed  in  providing 
so  splendid  an  asylum  for  learning  was  more  than  equalled 
by  the  discrimination  which  he  manifested  in  the  choice  of 
individuals  to  preside  over  its  interests  and  to  promote  its 
progress.  While  inviting  to  his  court  and  placing  in  his 
schools  those  characters  who  were  the  most  distinguished 
of  the  age  for  their  scientific  acquirements,  Ptolemy  never- 
theless showed  himself  the  greatest  philosopher  that  adorned 
Alexandria.  To  the  knowledge  of  books  he  joined  the 
more  valuable  knowledge  of  men  and  of  business  ; and  was 
thereby  qualified  to  direct  the  pursuits  of  science  to  prac- 
ticable objects,  as  well  as  to  withdraw  the  speculations  of 
the  learned  from  the  insane  metaphysics  in  which  they 
were  wont  to  indulge,  in  order  to  engage  them  in  the  more 
profitable  studies  of  criticism,  history,  geometry,  and  medi- 
cine. The  countenance  shown  to  Demetrius  Phalerius,  and 
the  employment  to  which  he  turned  his  accomplished  mind, 
reflect  greater  honour  upon  the  memory  of  Soter  than  all 
the  magnificence  of  the  Serapeion,  or  even-  the  patriotic 
object  contemplated  in  the  structure  of  the  Pharos. 

His  son  Philadelphus  succeeded  to  an  inheritance  of  great 


ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


67 


honour,  but  of  much  anxiety ; for,  being  raised  to  the  throne 
in  place  of  his  eldest  brother  Ceraunus,  he  was  long  exposed 
to  the  fear  of  domestic  treason  and  of  foreign  war.  But  a 
reign  of  thirty-eight  years  enabled  him  to  consolidate  his 
power,  and  even  to  purchase  the  gratitude  of  his  subjects, 
by  executing  many  public  works  of  great  utility.  He  con- 
veyed the  waters  of  the  Nile  into  the  deserts  of  Libya, 
completed  the  lighthouse  at  the  harbour  of  Alexandria, 
and  laboured  to  improve  the  navigable  canals  which  con- 
nected his  capital  with  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Mediterranean. 
The  only  stain  upon  his  administration  arose  from  the 
pitiful  revenge  inflicted  on  the  librarian  Demetrius,  for 
having  advised  the  former  king  to  allow  the  succession  to 
proceed  in  the  natural  course,  and  to  settle  the  crown  on 
his  first-born  son. 

The  third  Ptolemy  found  it  necessary  to  begin  his  reign 
with  a Syrian  war,  which,  in  his  own  time,  produced  no 
memorable  results,  though,  it  would  appear,  it  opened  up  to 
his  successor  a path  to  renown  as  a conquerer  in  the  East. 
The  latter  is  said  not  only  to  have  chastised  the  insolence 
of  Scleucus,  and  extended  his  conquests  beyond  the  Eu- 
phrates, but  even  to  have  carried  his  arms  to  the  confines  of 
Bactria.  Among  the  spoils  which  Euergetes — the  title 
bestowed  upon  him  by  his  people — acquired  in  the  course 
of  his  victories,  was  a prodigious  number  of  statues,  images 
of  gold  and  silver,  and  other  instruments  of  worship,  which 
Cambyses  had  carried  away  from  the  palaces  and  temples 
of  Egypt. 

It  was  in  the  year  221  before  our  era  that  Ptolemy  Philo- 
pater  mounted  the  throne  of  his  father  in  the  due  course 
of  succession.  In  his  reign  the  Syrians  recovered  the  prov- 
inces which  the  more  fortunate  arms  of  his  predecessor 
had  added  to  the  Egyptian  territory  ; the  Jews  were  inhu- 
manty  persecuted  ; and  the  general  affairs  of  the  kingdom 
fell  into  confusion  and  disorder.  A slave  to  his  passions, 
and  addicted  to  cruelty,  he  sunk  under  a ruined  constitution 
at  the  early  age  of  thirty-seven. 

The  minority  which  followed  was  of  considerable  im- 
portance, inasmuch  as  it  proved  the  occasion  of  introducing 
formally  into  Egypt  the  powerful  influence  of  the  Roman 
government.  As  Ptolemy  Epiphanes  was  only  five  years 
old  at  the  death  of  his  father,  the  kings  of  Syria  and  Mace- 


68 


CITIL  HISTORY  OF 


don  determined  to  dismember  and  divide  his  dominions  ; on 
which  account  the  guardians  of  the  prince  applied  to  the 
Western  Republic  to  interpose  her  authority  in  the  cause 
of  justice,  and  to  prevent  the  undue  aggrandizement  of  two 
ambitious  monarclis. 

This  request  was  readily  granted  ; and,  that  the  interests 
of  the  Egyptian  court  might  not  suffer  from  delay,  Marcus 
iEmilius  Lepidus  set  sail  for  Alexandria  to  assume  the  di- 
rection of  affairs.  Meanwhile  ambassadors  were  despatched 
to  Antiochus'and  Philip,  charged  with  the  determination  of 
the  senate,  and  instructed  to  make  known  the  line  of  policy 
which  the  Roman  government  had  resolved  to  pursue.  But 
the  peace  and  happiness  which  were  thus  secured  to  the 
people  ceased  almost  as  soon  as  this  feeble  ruler  took  the 
sceptre  into  his  own  hand.  He  became  corrupt,  and  they 
became  disaffected.  Various  conspiracies  were  Tormed  and 
defeated ; but  at  length  the  attempt  of  an  assassin  succeeded, 
and  Epiphanes  was  cut  off  in  the  twenty-ninth  year  of 
his  age. 

The  government  was  seized  by  the  queen,  a Syrian  prim- 
ness, named  Cleopatra,  in  behalf  of  her  son,  who  was  only 
six  years  old.  Her  partiality  for  her  native  court,  and  the 
influence  of  her  brother  Antiochus,  threatened  the  peace  of 
Egypt  and  even  its  independence,  when  the  Romans  again 
interposed  to  defeat  the  ambitious  schemes  of  Syria.  But 
the  young  Ptolemy,  distinguished  by  the  title  of  Philometer, 
was  so  completely  in  the  power  of  his  uncle  that  the  inhab- 
itants of  Alexandria  raised  to  the  throne  a younger  prince, 
upon  whom  they  conferred  the  surname  of  Euergetes, 
though,  at  a later  period,  he  was  better  known  by  the  epi- 
thet Physcon,  a term  expressive  of  unwieldy  corpulence. 
The  brothers  at  length  divided  the  kingdom,  and  exercised 
a separate  and  independent  sovereignty  ; Cyrene  and  Libya 
being  ceded  to  the  younger,  while  the  other  retained  that 
original  portion  of  Egypt  which  was  considered  as  more 
strictly  hereditary. 

Philometer,  at  his  death,  left  an  infant  son,  who  has  been 
denominated  Ptolemy  the  Seventh,  but  who  never  attained 
to  the  possession  of  power.  To  secure  the  tranquillity  of 
the  nation,  a union  between  the  widow  of  the  late  king  and 
Euergetes  the  Second  was  recommended  by  the  Romans, 
.and  immediately  adopted ; the  right  of  succession,  on  the 


ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


69 


demise  of  his  uncle,  being  reserved  to  the  young  prince. 
But  the  jealousy  of  the  cruel  monarch  soon  put  an  end  to 
his  life,  with  the  view,  it  might  be  presumed,  of  clearing 
the  way  for  the  accession  of  one  of  his  own  sons.  He  next 
repudiated  his  queen,  whom  he  subsequently  drove  into 
Syria,  and  thereby  involved  his  country  in  the  hazard  of  a 
war  with  Demetrius,  the  rival  and  enemy  of  Egypt.  Science 
and  learning,  intimidated  by  the  horrors  which  oppressed 
the  kingdom,  were  observed  to  take  flight  from  their  ancient 
seat,  and  to  seek  an  asylum  in  other  lands.  The  semina- 
ries of  Alexandria  were  deserted  by  the  most  distinguished 
professors,  who,  together  with  the  principal  inhabitants  of 
the  maritime  district,  found  themselves  menaced  with  im- 
prisonment or  death.  Nor  was  it  until  after  the  lapse  of 
twenty-nine  years  that  Physcon,  detested  for  his  crimes 
and  feared  for  his  sanguinary  disposition,  finished  his  earthly 
career,  leaving  his  crown  to  be  disputed  by  three  sons,  Ap- 
pion,  Lathyrus,  and  Alexander.  This  reign  will  appear 
interesting  in  the  eye  of  the  philosophical  historian,  from 
the  fact,  which  the  Egyptians  could  no  longer  conceal  from 
themselves,  that  the  influence  of  Rome  was  daily  gaining 
ground  in  their  councils,  and  already  securing  the  foun- 
dations of  that  dominion  which  she  afterward  formally 
usurped. 

Through  the  influence  of  Cleopatra,  who  had  returned 
from  her  Syrian  exile,  Alexander  was  preferred  to  the 
throne.  But  as  the  claims  of  Lathyrus  were  acknowledged 
by  a majority  of  the  people,  he  was  encouraged  to  assert 
his  right  by  force  of  arms  ; and  having  succeeded  in  driving 
his  younger  brother  into  a foreign  country,  he  inflicted  a 
severe  punishment  upon  the  insurgents  of  Upper  Egypt, 
who  had,  during  the  political  dissensions  of  the  new  capital, 
endeavoured  to  establish  their  independence.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  the  Thebaid  had  long  felt  themselves  overlooked. 
The  rising  glory  of  Memphis  had  first  obscured  the  splen- 
dour of  the  ancient  metropolis  ; while,  more  recently,  the 
importance  of  Alexandria,  both  as  a place  of  learning  and 
of  commerce,  had  attracted  to  a still  greater  extent  the  wealth 
and  population  of  the  kingdom.  It  is  not  surprising,  there- 
fore, that  the  citizens  of  Thebes  should  have  entertained 
the  desire  of  recovering  some  share  of  the  distinction  of 
which  they  had  been  gradually  deprived,  and,  at  the  same 


70 


CIVIL  HISTORV  OF 


time,  of  securing  to  the  Egyptians  a seat  of  government 
at  a greater  distance  from  the  arms  and  intrigues  of  their 
warlike  neighbours.  In  suppressing  this  spirit  of  disaffec- 
tion, Lathyrus  is  accused  of  aivexcessive  severity,  in  which 
he  emulated  the  destructive  policy  of  Cambyses,  and  re- 
duced the  remains  of  the  venerable  city  to  a heap  of  ruins. 

His  death,  in  the  year  eighty-one  before  Christ,  relieved 
the  apprehensions  of  the  people,  and  opened  a path  for  the 
.accession  of  Cleopatra,  his  only  child,  whose  gentle  sex  and 
manners  gave  the  promise  of  a happy  reign.  This  cheering 
anticipation  might  have  been  realized,  had  there  not  existed 
another  claimant  for  the  same  honour  in  the  person  of 
Alexander,  the  son  of  her  father’s  brother.  Cleopatra  was, 
without  doubt,  the  legitimate  sovereign,  and  was  acknow- 
ledged as  such  by  nearly  all  her  subjects  ; but  the  councils 
which  now  directed  the  affairs  of  Egypt  emanated  from  the 
shores  of  the  Tiber.  The  Romans,  who  at  first  acted  only 
as  umpires,  had  already  begun  to  enlarge  their  views,  and 
to  claim  a right  to  interpose  with  their  advice,  and  even 
with  their  arms.  Sylla  at  this  period  discharged  the  office 
of  dictator,  and,  in  virtue  of  his  high  prerogative  as  master 
of  the  commonwealth,  prescribed  an  arrangement  to  the 
competitors  for  the  Egyptian  crown.  Cleopatra  became 
the  wife  of  her  cousin  Ptolemy,  Alexander  the  Second,  and 
thereby,  it  was  hoped,  had  finally  united  the  rival  interests 
of  the  two  branches  of  the  royal  family.  But  this  measure 
produced  not  the  auspicious  results  which  wrere  expected 
to  arise  from  it.  The  ambitious  youth,  impatient  of  an 
equal,  murdered  his  young  wife,  and  seized  the  undivided 
sovereignty,  which  he  appears  to  have  occupied  several 
years.  At  length  he  was  compelled  to  flee  from  the  indig- 
nation of  his  subjects  to  the  coast  of  Tyre  ; where,  just  be- 
fore his  death,  he  made  a will,  by  which  he  bequeathed 
Egypt  to  the  Roman  senate  and  people. 

The  next  who  assumed  and  disgraced  the  title  of  Ptol- 
emy, was  a son  of  Lathyrus,  who,  from  the  excellence  of 
his  performances  on  the  flute,  was  surnamed  Auletes. 
This  weak  prince  proved  a tool  in  the  hands  of  the  Romans, 
and  evidently  lent  himself  to  accomplish  their  favourite 
design  of  reducing  Egypt  to  the  condition  of  a province 
dependent  on  the  republic.  The  leading  men  at  court,  who 
had  no  difficulty  in  penetrating  his  intentions,  expelled  him 


ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


71 


from  the  throne,  and  placed  the  sceptre  in  the  hand  of  his 
daughter  Berenice.  To  defend  themselves  still  further 
against  the  intrigues  of  Rome,  they  proposed  to  marry  their 
young  sovereign  to  the  King  of  Syria, — hoping  that  the 
combined  forces  of  the  two  kingdoms  would  prove  more 
than  a matcti  for  the  legions  usually  stationed  beyond  the 
Hellespont.  But  the  premature  death  of  Antiochus  de- 
feated this  wise  project.  Auletes  was  restored  through  the 
interest  of  the  celebrated  Pompey,  and  conducted  into  his 
capital  by  Mark  Antony,  a commander  hardly  less  renowned. 
After  a series  of  oppressions  and  cruelties,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  the  murder  of  Berenice,  he  tenninated 
a shameful  reign  by  an  early  death, — intrusting  his  sur- 
viving children  to  the  care  and  tuition  of  the  Roman 
government. 

Among  the  infants  thus  left  to  the  protection  of  the 
senate,  were  the  famous  Cleopatra  and  her  brother  Ptolemy 
Dionysius.  As  soon  as  these  princes  came  of  age,  they 
were  raised  to  the  throne,  and  associated  in  the  government. 
But  their  friendship  and  union  were  of  short  continuance  ; 
and  each  having  the  support  of  a numerous  party,  their 
dissensions  almost  necessarily  terminated  in  a civil  war. 
Cleopatra  was  compelled  to  seek  refuge  in  Syria ; soon 
after  which  event,  Julius  Csesar,  who  by  his  victory  at 
Pharsalia  had  already  made  himself  master  of  the  com- 
monwealth, appeared  in  Egypt  to  complete  his  conquest, 
and  to  quell  the  intestine  commotions  by  which  the  whole 
of  that  kingdom  was  distracted.  She  lost  no  time  in  re- 
pairing to  Alexandria,  where  she  was  secretly  introduced 
into  the  presence  of  the  Roman  general.  This  able  soldier 
and  politician  immediately  restored  to  her  the  share  of 
power  which  she  had  formerly  possessed, — issuing  a decree, 
in  the  name  of  the  senate,  that  Ptolemy  Dionysius  and  his 
sister  Cleopatra  should  be  acknowledged  as  joint  sovereigns 
of  Egypt.  The  partisans  of  the  young  king,  being  dis- 
satisfied with  this  arrangement,  had  recourse  to  a military 
stratagem,  by  which  Csesar  and  his  attendants  were  nearly 
destroyed.  A war  ensued  soon  afterward,  which  ended  in 
the  death  of  Ptolemy  and  the  complete  establishment  of 
the  Romans,  not  less  as  conquerors  than  as  guardians  of  the 
children  of  Auletes. 

But  it  was  not  consistent  with-  Egyptian  decorum  that 


72 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


Cleopatra  should  reign  without  a colleague  ; and,  therefore* 
to  satisfy  the  prejudices  of  the  people,  her  youngest 
brother,  not  more  than  eleven  years  of  age,  was  placed 
beside  her  on  the  throne.  Such  a nomination  could  not  be 
regarded  in  any  other  light  than  as  a show  of  limiting  the 
power  of  the  queen  ; and  even  this  apparent  check  on  her 
authority  was  soon  removed  by  the  murder  of  the  child, 
who  fell  a victim  to  the  furious  passions  which  at  that  period 
dishonoured  the  descendants  of  the  great  Ptolemy. 

But  the  term  of  their  dynasty  was  now  fast  approaching. 
The  assassination  of  the  conqueror  of  Pharsalia,  and  the 
subsequent  defeat  of  Mark  Antony,  raised  the  fortunes  of 
Octavianus  above  the  reach  of  the  most  powerful  of  his 
rivals,  and  at  length  invested  him  with  the  imperial  purple, 
as  the  acknowledged  head  of  the  Roman  world.  Cleopatra 
made  her  escape  from  his  revenge  in  a voluntary  death  ; for 
suspecting  that  he  intended  to  wound  her  feelings,  by 
assigning  to  her  a place  in  the  train  of  captives  who  were 
to  adorn  his  triumph  at  Rome,  she  found  means  to  put  an 
end  to  her  life  by  the  bite  of  a poisonous  reptile.  With  her 
ended  the  line  of  Grecian  sovereigns,  which  had  continued 
two  hundred  and  ninety-six  years. 

As  a province  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  history  of  Egypt 
can  hardly  be  separated  from  that  of  the  mighty  people  by 
whose  deputies  it  was  now  to  be  governed.  It  was,  indeed, 
occasionally  disturbed  by  insurrections,  and  sometimes  even 
by  foreign  war  ; but  it  was,  notwithstanding,  retained  with 
a firm  grasp  both  against  domestic  and  external  foes,  until 
the  decline  of  power  compelled  the  successors  of  Augustus 
to  withdraw  their  legions  from  the  extremities  of  the  em- 
pire, to  defend  the  provinces  on  the  Tiber  and  the  Danube. 
Adrian,  in  the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  spent  two 
years  in  Egypt,  during  which  he  laboured  to  revive  among 
the  natives  the  love  of  letters  and  the  beauties  of  archi 
tecture.  Severus,  too,  at  a somewhat  later  period,  made  e 
similar  visit,  when,  like  his  predecessor,  he  exerted  himself 
to  relieve  the  burdens  and  improve  the  condition  of  the  great 
body  of  the  people.  In  particular,  he  countenanced  every 
attempt  that  was  made  to  repair  the  ancient  monuments,  as 
also  to  replenish  the  museums  and  libraries  at  Alexandria 
with  books,  instruments,  and  works  of  art ; and,  above  all, 
to  withdraw  the  minds  of  the  more  contemplative  from  the 


ANCIENT  EGYPT. 


73 


dangerous  pursuits  of  magic  and  the  contemptible  decep- 
tions of  astrology.  The  reigns  of  Claudius  and  of  Aure- 
lian  were  slightly  agitated  by  the  pretensions  of  Zenobia, 
Queen  of  Palmyra,  who,  as  a descendant  of  the  Ptolemies, 
announced  herself  the  sovereign  of  Egypt.  Her  army  ad- 
vanced to  the  frontiers,  and  even  gained  some  advantages 
over  the  Romans ; but  her  troops  being  at  length  steadily 
opposed  by  the  legions  of  Syria,  she  sustained  a total  defeat, 
and  was  carried  captive  to  Rome. 

When,  at  a later  period,  the  emperor  Probus  visited 
Egypt,  he  executed  many  considerable  works  for  the  splen- 
dour and  benefit  of  the  country.  The  navigation  of  the 
Nile,  so  important  to  Rome  itself,  was  improved  ; and  tem- 
ples, bridges,  porticoes,  and  palaces  were  constructed  by 
the  hands  of  his  soldiers,  who  acted  by  turns  as  architects, 
as  engineers,  and  as  husbandmen.  On  the  division  of  the 
empire  by  Diocletian,  Egypt  was  reduced  to  a very  distracted 
state.  Achilleus  at  Alexandria,  and  the  Blemmyes,  a 
savage  race  of  Ethiopians,  defied  the  Roman  arms.  The 
emperor,  resolved  to  punish  the  insurgents,  opened  the  cam- 
paign with  the  siege  of  Alexandria.  He  cut  off  the  aque- 
ducts which  supplied  every  quarter  of  that  immense  city  w'ith 
water,  and  pushed  his  attacks  with  so  much  caution  and 
vigour,  that. at  the  end  of  eight  months  the  besieged  sub- 
mitted to  the  clemency  of  the  conqueror.  The  fate  of  Bu- 
siris  and  Coptos  was  even  more  melancholy  than  that  of 
Alexandria.  Those  proud  cities, — the  former  distinguished 
by  its  antiquity,  the  latter  enriched  by  the  passage  of  the 
Indian  trade, — were  utterly  destroyed  by  the  arms  of  the 
enraged  Diocletian.* 

The  introduction  of  Christianity  was  marked  by  repeated 
outrages  among  the  people,  and  even  by  such  commotions 
as  threatened  to  shake  the  stability  of  the . government. 
The  adherents  of  the  old  superstition  resisted,  on  some 
occasions,  the  destruction  of  their  temples  and  the  con- 
temptuous exposure  of  their  idols ; while,  in  more  than 
one  instance,  the  Christian  ministers,  with  a larger  share 
of  zeal  than  of  discretion,  insulted  their  opinions,  and  even 
set  at  defiance  the  authority  of  the  civil  magistrate  when 
interposed  to  preserve  the  public  peace.  But,  after  the 

* Gibbon,  vol.  i.  chap.  6. 

G 


74 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 


conversion  of  Constantine,  the  power  of  the  church  was 
effectually  exerted  to  co-operate  with  the  provincial  rulers 
in  supporting  the  rights  of  the  empire,  and  in  repelling  the 
inroads  of  the  barbarians  from  the  east  and  south.  Nor 
was  it  till  a new  religion  arose  in  Arabia,  and  gave  birth  to 
a dynasty  of  warlike  sovereigns,  that  Egypt,  wrested  from 
its  European  conquerors,  was  forced  to  receive  more  arbi- 
trary masters,  and  submit  to  a severer  yoke.  This  era, 
however,  constitutes  the  point  in  our  historical  retrospect 
at  which  we  announced  our  intention  to  interrupt  the  nar- 
rative, until  we  shall  have  laid  before  the  reader  an  account 
of  the  arts,  the  literature,  and  commerce  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Mechanical  Labours  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians. 

The  Magnitude  of  Egyptian  Edifices— Their  supposed  Object  connected 
with  the  Doctrine  of  the  Metempsychosis — Proposal  made  to  Alex- 
ander the  Great— Lake  Mceris;  its  Extent— The  Narrative  of  Herodo- 
tus ; supported  by  Diodorus  and  Pomponius  Mela — Opinion  that  the 
Nile  originally  flowed  through  the  Valley  of  the  Dry  River — Facts 
stated  by  Denon ; and  by  Belzoni — Lake  Mceris  not  a Work  of  Art — 
The  River  of  Joseph,  and  Canals  connecting  it  with  the  Nile — Pyra- 
mids ; Account  by  Herodotus  ; Researches  of  Davison  ; of  Caviglia  ; 
of  Belzoni ; Dimensions  of  Pyramids — Sphinx ; Exertions  of  Caviglia 
— Monolithic  Temple — Tombs — Reflections. 

The  history  of  Egypt  presents  nothing  more  wonderful 
than  the  magnitude  and  durability  of  the  public  works 
which  were  accomplished  by  her  ancient  inhabitants.  Prodi- 
gal of  labour  and  expense,  her  architects  appear  to  have 
planned  their  structures  for  the  admiration  of  the  most 
distant  posterity,  and  with  the  view  of  rendering  the  fame 
of  their  mechanical  powers  coeval  with  the  existence  of 
the  globe  itself.  It  has  been  suspected,  indeed,  that  the 
omnipotent  spirit  of  religion  mingled  with  the  aspirations 
of  a more  earthly  ambition  in  suggesting  the  intricacies  of 
the  Labyrinth,  and  in  realizing  the  vast  conception  of  the 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


75 


Pyramids.  The  preservation  of  the  body  in  an  entire  and 
uncorrupted  state  during  three  thousand  years,  is  under- 
stood to  have  been  connected  with  the  mythological  tenet 
that  the  spirit  by  which  it  was  originally  occupied  would 
return  to  animate  its  members,  and  to  render  them  once 
more  the  instruments  of  a moral  probation  amid  the  ordi- 
nary pursuits  of  the  human  race.  The  mortal  remains 
even  of  the  greatest  prince  could  hardly  have  been  regarded 
as  deserving  of  the  minute  care  and  the  sumptuous  appa- 
ratus which  were  employed  to  save  them  from  dissolution, 
had  not  the  national  faith  pointed  to  a renewal  of  existence 
in  the  lapse  of  ages,  when  the  bodily  organs  would  again 
become  necessary  to  the  exercise  of  those  faculties  from 
which  the  dignity  and  enjoyment  of  man  are  derived. 
There  can  be  no  doubt,  therefore,  that  Egypt  was  indebted 
to  the  religious  speculations  of  her  ancient  sages  for  those 
sublime  works  of  architecture  which  still  distinguish  her 
above  all  the  other  nations  of  the  primitive  world. 

It  must  at  the  same  time  be  acknowledged  that,  in  all 
countries  comparatively  rude,  vastness  of  size  takes  prece- 
dence of  all  other  qualities  in  architectural  arrangement. 
As  a proof  of  this,  it  will  not  be  denied  that  even  the  Pyra- 
mids sink  into  insignificance  when  compared  with  an  un- 
dertaking proposed  by  Stesicrates  to  Alexander  the  Great. 
Plutarch  relates  that  this  projector  offered  to  convert  Mount 
Athos  into  a statue  of  the  victorious  monarch.  The  left 
arm  was  to  be  the  base  of  a city  containing  ten  thousand 
inhabitants  ; while  the  right  was  to  hold  an  urn,  from  which 
a river  was  to  empty  itself  into  the  sea.  But  our  object  in 
this  chapter  is  not  to  describe  the  fanciful  dreams  of  a pane- 
gyrist, but  to  give  an  account  of  works  which  were  actually 
effected,  and  of  which  the  remains  continue  at  the  present 
day  to  verify  at  once  the  existence  and  the  grandeur. 

We  shall  begin  with  Lake  Moeris,  which,  although,  upon 
the  whole,  it  owes  more  to  nature  than  to  art,  is  neverthe- 
less well  worthy  of  notice,  both  for  its  great  extent  and  for 
its  patriotic  object.  Herodotus,  our  best  authority  for  its 
original  appearance,  infonns  us  that  the  circumference  of 
this  vast  sheet  of  water  was  three  thousand  six  Iiundred 
stadia,  or  four  hundred  and  fifty  miles, — that  it  stretched 
from  north  to  south, — and  that  its  greatest  depth  was  about 


76 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 


three  hundred  feet.  He  adds  that  it  was  entirely  the  pro- 
duct of  human  industry  ; as  a proof  of  which,  he  states  that 
in  its  centre  were  seen  two  pyramids,  each  of  which  was 
two  hundred  cubits  above  and  as  many  beneath  the  water, 
and  that  upon  the  summit  of  both  was  a colossal  statue, 
placed  in  a sitting  attitude.  The  precise  height  of  these 
pyramids,  he  concludes,  is  therefore  four  hundred  cubits,  or 
six  hundred  Egyptian  feet. 

The  waters  of  the  lake,  he  continues,  are  not  supplied 
by  springs  : on  the  contrary,  the  ground  which  it  occupies 
i6  of  itself  remarkably  dry  ; but  it  communicates  by  an 
artificial  channel  with  the  Nile, — receiving  during  six 
months  the  excess  of  the  inundation,  and  during  the  other 
half  of  the  year  emptying  itself  back  into  the  river.  Every 
day  during  the  latter  period  the  fishery  yields  to  the  royal 
treasury  a talent  of  silver, — whereas,  as  soon  as  the  ebb 
has  ceased,  the  produce  falls  to  a mere  trifle.  “ The  inhabit- 
ants affirm  of  this  lake,  that  it  has  a subterraneous  passage 
westward  into  the  Libyan  Desert,  in  the  line  of  the  moun- 
tain which  rises  above  Memphis.  I was  anxious  to  know 
what  became  of  the  earth  which  was  dug  out  of  the  lake, 
and  made  inquiry  at  those  who  dwelt  on  its  shores.”  The 
answer  given  to  this  very  natural  question  seems  to  have 
imposed  on  the  credulity  of  the  historian.  They  assured 
him  that  the  soil  was  carried  to  the  river,  and  washed  down 
by  the  current  into  the  sea, — an  explanation  with  which  he 
was  perfectly  satisfied. 

In  reference  to  this  narrative,  which  exhibits  the  usual 
characteristics  of  truth  and  simplicity,  we  may  remark  that 
it  is  substantially  confirmed  by  the  statements  of  Diodorus 
Siculus  and  of  Pomponius  Mela.  According  to  the  former 
of  these  writers,  the  circumference  ef  the  lake  was  exactly 
that  which  has  been  already  quoted  from  the  more  ancient 
historian  ; w hile  the  latter  magnifies  it  to  the  extent  of  five 
hundred  miles.  They  all  agree  in  representing  that  its 
object  must  have  been  to  save  the  country  from  the  effects 
of  an  excessive  inundation,  and  at  the  same  time  to  reserve 
a supply  of  moisture  for  the  arid  lands  in  the  vicinity,  or  for 
the  wants  of  a dry  season  in  the  Delta.  It  may,  however, 
be  thought  probable  that  it  was  rather  to  prevent  an  evil 
than  to  secure  a benefaction ; for  we  find  that  the  water 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


77 


has  not  only  a disagreeable  taste,  but  is  almost  as  salt  as 
the  sea, — a quality  which  it  is  supposed  to  contract  from 
the  nitre  with  which  the  surrounding  land  is  every  where 
impregnated. 

Last  century,  according,  to  Dr.  Pococke,  Lake  Moeris  was 
about  fifty  miles  long  and  ten  broad.  The  older  French 
writers  estimated  its  circumference  at  a hundred  and  fifty 
leagues, — a result  not  materially  different  from  that  of  the 
English  traveller.  Mr.  Browne,  who  was  more  lately  in 
Egypt,  thought  that  the  length  did  not  exceed  thirty  or  forty 
miles,  and  that  the  greatest  breadth  was  not  more  than  six. 
It  is  hence  manifest  that  the  limits  of  this  inland  sea  have 
been  much  contracted ; and,  moreover,  that  the  process  of 
diminution  is  still  going  on  at  a rate  which  is  distinctly  per 
ceptible.  In  ancient  times,  there  can  be  no  doubt,  the  water 
covered  a large  portion  of  the  valley  of  F ay oum,  and  proba- 
bly, when  the  inundation  exceeded  certain  limits,  found  an 
outlet  from  the  eastern  extremity  along  the  valley  of  the 
Bahr-bela-Maieh.  It  is  equally  manifest  that  the  level  of 
the  Nile  itself  must,  in  those  days,  have  been  higher  than 
it  is  at  present,  and  that  the  branch  which  is  now  called 
Joseph’s  River  must  have  conveyed  no  small  share  of  its 
flood  along  the  foot  of  the  Libyan  hills.  At  the  remote 
epoch  when  the  Delta  was  a bay  of  the  Mediterranean,  the 
main  current  of  the  descending  flood  would  naturally  seek 
an  issue  in  the  direction  of  those  very  hollows  which  con- 
tinue to  display  the  most  convincing  evidence  that  they  were 
long  washed  as  the  channel  of  a mighty  stream. 

That  the  Nile  originally  flowed  through  the  valley  of  the 
Dry  River  is  admitted  by  the  most  intelligent  among  modern 
travellers.  M.  Denon,  for  example,  regards  as  proofs  of  this 
fact  the  physical  conformation  of  the  adjoining  country, — 
the  existence  of  the  bed  of  a river  extending  to  the  sea,  but 
now  dry, — its  depositions  and  incrustations, — the  depth  of 
the  lake, — its  extent, — its  bearing  towards  the  north  on  a 
chain  of  hills  which  run  east  and  west,  and  turn  off  towards 
the  north-west,  sloping  down  to  follow  the  course  of  the 
valley  of  the  dry  channel,  and  likewise  the  Natron  Lakes. 
And,  more  than  all  the  other  proofs,  the  form  of  the  chain 
of  mountains  at  the  north  of  the  Pyramid  which  shuts  the 
entrance  of  the  valley,  and  appears  to  be  cut  perpendicu- 
larly, like  almost  all  the  mountains  at  the  foot  of  which  the 
G2 


78 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 


Nile  flows  at  the  present  day, — all  these  offer  to  the  view  a 
channel  left  dry,  and  its  several  remains.* 

The  opinion  that  the  river  of  Egypt  penetrated  into  the 
Libyan  Desert,  even  to  the  westward  of  F ay oum,  is  rendered 
probable  by  some  observations  recorded  in  the  second  vol- 
ume of  Belzoni’s  Researches.  In  his  journey  to  the  Oasis 
of  Ammon,  he  reached  one  evening  the  Bahr-bela-Maieh. 
u This  place  is  singular  and  deserves  the  attention  of  the 
geographer,  as  it  is  a dry  river , and  has  all  the  appearance 
of  water  having  been  in  it, — the  bank  and  bottom  being 
quite  full  of  stones  and  sand.  There  are  several  islands  in 
the  centre  ; but  the  most  remarkable  circumstance  is,  that, 
at  a certain  height  upon  the  bank,  there  is  a mark  evidently 
as  if  the  water  had  reached  so  high  : the  colour  of  the  ma- 
terials above  that  mark  is  also  much  lighter  than  those 
•below.  And  what  would  almost  determine  that  there  has 
been  water  there,  is  that  the  island  has  the  same  mark,  and 
on  the  same  level  with  that  on  the  banks  of  the  said  dry 
river.  I am  at  a loss  to  conjecture  how  the  course  of  this 
river  is  so  little  known,  as  I only  found  it  marked  near  the 
Natron  Lakes,  taking  a direction  of  north-west  and  south- 
east, which  does  not  agree  with  its  course  here,  which  is 
from  north  to  south  as  far  as  -I  could  see  from  the  summit 
of  a high  rock  on  the  west  side  of  it.  The  Arabs  assured 
me  that  it  ran  a great  way  in  both  directions,  and  that  it  is 
the  same  which  passes  near  the  Natron  Lakes.  If  this  be 
the  case,  it  must  pass  right  before  the  extremity  of  the  Lake 
Mosris,  at  the  distance  of  two  or  three  days’  journey  in  a 
Western  direction.  This  is  the  place  where  several  petrified 
stumps  of  trees  are  found,  and  many  pebbles  with  moving 
or  quick  water  inside.”  f 

In  its  present  contracted  dimensions,  the  Lake  of  Mceris 
is  called  by  the  Arabs  the  Birket-el-Karoun,  and  is  recog- 
nised at  once  as  a basin  formed  by  nature,  and  not  by  art. 
The  details  collected  by  Herodotus,  and  the  other  writers 
of  Greece  and  Rome,  must  therefore  have  applied  to  the 
works  which  were  necessary  not  only  to  connect  the  Nile 
with  the  lake,  but  also  to  regulate  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the 
inundation.  The  canal,  called  Joseph’s  River,  is  about  a 
hundred  and  twenty  miles  in  length ; which,  when  it  enters 


* Denon,  vol.  i.  p.  163. 


t Belzoni,  vol.  ii.  p.  183. 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


79 


the  valley  of  F ayoura,  is  further  divided  into  a number  of 
subordinate  branches,  and  supplied  with  a variety  of  locks 
and  dams.  There  were  two  other  canals  communicating 
between  the  lake  and  the  stream,  with  sluices  at  their 
mouths,  which  were  alternately  shut  and  opened  as  the  Nile 
rose  or  fell.  These,  we  may  presume,  were  the  achieve- 
ments of  Moeris ; \frhich,  when  they  are  regarded  as  the 
work  of  an  individual,  having  for  their  object  the  advantage 
and  comfort  of  a numerous  people,  may  justly  be  esteemed 
a far  more  glorious  undertaking  than  either  the  Pyramids  or 
the  Labyrinth. 

In  no  circumstance,  indeed,  do  the  arts  and  civilization 
of  ancient  Egypt  appear  more  manifest  than  in  the  care 
which  was  taken  to  improve  the  productive  qualities  of  the 
soil  by  means  of  irrigation.  A slight  inspection  of  the  plain 
of  F ayoum,  even  in  its  present  neglected  state,  affords  the 
most  convincing  evidence  that,  in  the  days  of  the  Pharaohs, 
no  degree  of  labour  was  accounted  too  great,  provided  it 
could  secure  to  the  agriculturist  a share  in  the  blessing 
annually  communicated  by  the  Nile. 

Near  Beni  Souef,  in  Middle  Egypt,  the  river  passes 
close  under  the  foot  of  the  Arabian  hills,  and  leaves 
on  the  western  side  a large  extent  of  fertile  land.  At 
this  place  the  excellence  of  the  system  followed  by  the 
ancients  is  most  distinctly  perceived.  The  soil  deposited 
during  the  inundation,  as  we  have  elsewhere  observed, 
accumulates  fastest  near  the  river,  and  forms  a ridge  about 
a mile  and  a half  broad,  which  is  above  the  level  of  the 
water  at  all  seasons.  Between  this  elevation  and  the  hills 
there  is  produced  a similar  rising  of  the  surface  ; so  that 
from  the  Nile  to  the  rocky  barrier  which  bounds  the 
Libyan  Desert,  there  are  two  ridges  and  two  depressions. 
Hence  two  kinds  of  canals  became  requisite, — large  ones  in 
the  bottom  of  these  hollows,  and  a smaller  class  branching 
off  on  either  side,  to  water  the  intermediate  grounds.  To 
render  these  last  available,  dikes  of  considerable  magnitude 
were,  at  certain  distances,  constructed  across  the  current  of 
the  main  canals,  which  served  both  as  dams  to  retain  the 
water  for  a sufficient  time,  and  as  roads  from  village  to  vil- 
lage. Between  Siout  and  F ayoum,  accordingly,  where  the 
distance  from  the  Nile  and  the  mountains  is  the  greatest, 
several  principal  canals,  parallel  to  the  river,  were  dug  in 


80 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 


ancient  times  ; among  which,  the  most  remarkable  were 
the  Bahr  Yousef,  and  another  called  the  Hatn, — the  line  of 
which  last,  however,  cannot  be  so  distinctly  traced  at  the 
present  day.  In  the  same  district  there  were  eleven  large 
mounds  or  dikes,  besides  a considerable  number  of  smaller 
size, — all  provided  with  sluices  to  regulate  the  issue  of 
water  according  to  the  state  of  the  crdps  and  the  height  of 
the  inundation. 

This  precaution,  on  some  occasions,  must  have  been 
absolutely  necessary.  Belzoni  tells  us  that  the  year  in 
which  he  visited  Fayoum  an  extraordinary  overflow  of  the 
Nile  sent  such  a quantity  of  water  into  the  Lake  Mceris  that 
it  rose  twelve  feet  higher  than  it  had  ever  been  known  by 
the  oldest  fisherman  on  its  banks.  Denon,  in  like  manner, 
remarks,  that  if  it  were  not  for  the  dikes  which  stop  the 
inundation,  the  great  swells  would  soon  convert  the  whole 
province  into  an  inland  sea, — -an  event  which  had  nearly 
taken  place  about  forty  years  ago,  during  an  unusually  high 
flood,  when- the  river  rose  over  the  banks  of  Ilahon,  and 
created  an  apprehension  that  it  would  lay  the  plain  under 
water,  or  resume  the  channel  which  it  had  evidently  occu- 
pied in  remote  ages.  To  remedy  this  inconvenience,  a 
graduated  mound  has  been  raised  near  the  village  just 
named,  where  there  is  also  a sluice  erected,  which,  as  soon 
as  the  inundation  has  got  to  the  proper  height  to  water  the 
province  without  drowning  it,  divides  the  mass  of  fluid  ; 
taking  the  quantity  necessary  for  irrigation,  and  turning 
aside  the  remainder  by  forcing  it  back  into  the  river  through 
other  canals  of  a deeper  cut,  directed  to  a lower  section  of 
the  stream. 

We  have  already  suggested  that  the  great  work  of  King 
Moeris  is  to  be  sought  for  not  in  the  lake  which  bears  his 
name,  but  in  the  immense  excavations  which  connected  it 
with  the  Nile,  and  in  the  mounds,  the  dams,  and  the 
sluices  which  rendered  it  subservient  to  the  important  pur- 
poses of  irrigation.  Enough  still  remains  to  enable  the 
reader  to  fonn  some  judgment  of  the  extent  and  magnifi- 
cence of  the  original  undertaking.  The  French  philoso-  • 
phers  describe  Fayoum,  the  ancient  name  of  Arsinoe,  as 
being  of  an  oval  figure,  and  forming  a low  table-land,  gradu- 
ally sloping  towards  the  north  and  the  south.  Along  the 
highest  part  of  the  ridge  runs  the  Bahr  Yousef  as  far  as 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


81 


Medinet-el-Fayoum,  the  capital  of  the  province,  where  it 
branches  off  into  a great  number  of  smaller  streams.  Its 
bed  is  here  cut  through  the  solid  rock,  and  shows  that  the 
Egyptians  in  old  times  were  well  acquainted  with  the  prin- 
ciples of  levelling.  About  five  miles  within  the  valley  there 
is  a bridge  of  ten  arches  running  parallel  with  Joseph’s 
River,  which,  serving  as  a dam  when  the  inundation  is  low, 
lets  the  water  pass  when  it  is  high,  and  is  probably  the 
sluice  mentioned  by  Strabo  and  other  ancient  authors. 

In  a direction  nearly  due  north  from  the  bridge  just  de- 
scribed, there  is  a canal,  now  usually  dry,  but  which,  at  the 
height  of  the  flood,  carries  the  water  as  far  as  the  village 
of  Tamieh,  situated  on  the  east  side  of  the  lake, — a dis- 
tance of  about  twenty-two  miles.  This  cut  must  have  been 
formed  through  a bed  of  continuous  rock,  as  appeared  on 
sinking  a shaft  into  the  mud,  which  in  some  places  was 
found  twenty-three  feet  deep.  Tamieh,  which  formerly 
stood  on  the  edge  of  Moeris,  is  now  six  miles  from  it, — an 
additional  proof  that  the  extent  of  the  lake  is  very  much 
contracted.  In  fact,  so  much  neglected  are  the  various 
channels  which,  after  disburdening  the  Nile  of  its  super- 
fluous waters,  used  to  carry  them  into  this  western  valley, 
that  the  limits  of  the  cultivable  land  are  becoming  every 
year  more  narrow  ; the  Birket-el-Karoun  is  gradually  re- 
tiring from  its  shores  ; and  the  approach  of  the  desert 
towards  the  river  is  more  and  more  facilitated. 

The  observations  of  Belzoni  during  his  journey  to  the 
Oasis  give  much  probability  to  the  opinion  that  the  reign 
of  civilization  had,  at  an  early  age,  extended  far  into  the 
Libyan  waste.  Ruins  of  towns,  and  other  tokens  of  an 
improved  population,  meet  the  eye  from  time  to  time  ; 
masses  of  sand  cover  the  monuments  of  an  age  compara- 
tively enlightened,  and  deform  plains  which,  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe,  were  at  one  time  the  scene  of  agricultural 
industry,  of  the  arts,  and  of  law.  A similar  inference 
might  be  drawn  from  an  examination  of  the  country  which 
stretches  to  the  southward  of  Tripoli ; where  are  still  to  be 
found  the  relics  of  magnificent  buildings,  mixed  with  the 
shingle  of  the  desert,  and  aflprding  to  the  barbarians  who  now 
traverse  that  wilderness  a constant  triumph  over  the  achieve- 
ments of  polished  life.  We  ought  not,  therefore,  to  give 
way  to  an  undue  haste  in  concluding  that  the  descriptions 


82 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 


of  Lake  Moeris  left  to  us  by  the  ancient  authors  are  much 
exaggerated.  The  pyramids  mentioned  by  Herodotus,  if 
we  may  form  a judgment  from  the  remains  of  those  which 
still  stand  at  the  entrance  of  the  valley,  were  built  of  brick, 
and  may  therefore  long  ago  have  yielded  to  the  solvent 
power  of  the  atmosphere,  supplying  perhaps  part  of  those 
ruins  which  are  at  present  found  scattered  along  the  beach. 
It  is  not  to  be  imagined  that  they  were  placed  in  the  deep 
basin  formed  by  nature,  and  which  is  still  occupied  by  the 
Birket-el-Karoun,  but  rather  in  that  division  of  the  lake 
which  was  prepared  by  aTt  for  the  reception  of  the  annual 
flood,  at  the  period  when  Moeris  changed  the  course  of  the 
.Nile  from  its  more  ancient  channel.* 

The  Labyrinth  is  also  mentioned  by  Herodotus  as  one 
of  the  greatest  wonders  of  Egypt,  and  the  most  surprising 
effort  of  human  ingenuity  and  perseverance.  “ It  exceeds, 
I can  truly  assert,  all  that  has  been  said  of  it ; and  who- 
ever takes  the  trouble  to  examine  them  will  find  all  the 
works  of  Greece  much  inferior  to  this,  both  in  regard  to 
workmanship  and  expense.  The  temples  of  Ephesus  and 
Samos  may  justly  claim  admiration,  and  the  Pyramids  may 
individually  be  compared  to  many  of  the  magnificent  struc- 
tures erected  by  the  Greeks  ; but  even  these  are  inferior  to 
the  Labyrinth.  It  is  composed  of  twelve  courts,  all  of 
which  are  covered  ; their  entrances  are  opposite  to  each 
other,  six  to  the  north  and  six  to  the  south  ; one  wall  en- 
closes the  whole.  The  apartments  are  of  two  kinds  ; there 
are  fifteen  hundred  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  as 
many  beneath, — in  all  three  thousand.  Of  the  fonner,  I 
can  speak  from  my  own  knowledge  and  observation  ; of  the 
latter,  only  from  the  information  which  I received.  The 
persons  who  had  the  charge  of  the  subterraneous  apart- 
ments would  not  suffer  me  to  see  them,  alleging  that  in 
these  were  preserved  the  sacred  crocodiles,  and  the  bodies 

* Belzoni,  vol.  ii.  p.  150-158;  Jomard  D^scrip.  de  l’Egypte,  vol.  ii.  p. 
8-43;  Strabo,  xvi.  c.  1 ; Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voyages,  xi.  p.  133  ; 
Pococke’s  Travels  in  the  East ; Wilford  in  Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  iii. 
p.  245. 

- The  words  of  Pliny  are  remarkable  ip  regard  to  the  extent  of  Lake 
Mceris,  as  compared  with  its  limits  in  his  own  day  : — “ Inter  Arsinoitem 
autem  et  Memphetem  locus  fuit,  circuitu  ccl.  M.p.,  aut,  ut  Mutianus 
tradit  ccccl.  M.p.  et  altitudinis  L.  pass.,  manu  factus  a rege  qui  fecerat, 
Mceridis appellants.”  P.69. 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


83 


of  the  kings  who  constructed  the  Labyrinth.  Of  these, 
therefore,  I presume  not  to  speak  ; but  the  upper  apart- 
ments I myself  examined,  and  I pronounce  them  to  be 
among  the  greatest  triumphs  of  human  industry  and  art. 
The  almost  infinite  number  of  winding  passages  through 
the  different^ourts  excited  my  warmest  admiration.  From 
spacious  halif  I passed  through  smaller  chambers,  and  from 
them  again  to  large  magnificent  courts  almost  without  end. 
The  ceilings  and  walls  are  all  of  marble,  the  latter  richly 
adorned  with  the  finest  sculpture  ; and  around  each  court 
are  pillars  of  the  same  material,  the  whitest  and  most  pol- 
ished that  I ever  saw.  At  the  point  where  the  Labyrinth 
terminates  stands  a pyramid  one  hundred  and  sixty  cubits 
high,  having  large  figures  of  animals  engraved  on  the  out- 
side, and  an  entrance  to  the  interior  by  a subterraneous 
path.”* 

The  same  historian  relates  that  this  stupendous  edifice 
was  constructed  beyond  the  Lake  Moeris,  near  the  City  of 
Crocodiles,  now  better  known  as  Arsinoe,  or  the  Medinet- 
el-Fayoum.  He  ascribes  the  design  of  the  building  to  a 
determination  of  the  twelve  kings,  who  at  that  period  gov- 
erned Egypt,  to  leave  behind  them  a monument  worthy  of 
their  fame ; and  hence,  perhaps,  the  number  of  the  courts 
and  gates  by  which  the  Labyrinth  was  distinguished . 

Diodorus  says  that  it  was  built  as  a sepulchre  for  Mendes, 
while  Strabo  intimates  that  it  only  stood  near  the  tomb  of 
the  monarch  who  erected  it.  Pomponius  Mela,  again, 
speaks  of  it  as  having  been  constructed  by  Psammeticus  ; 
but  as  Mendes  or  Imandes  is  mentioned  by  several  writers, 
it  is  probable  that  he  was  the  king  of  the  particular  province 
in  which  the  Labyrinth  was  placed,  and  who,  as  possessing 
the  greatest  influence  and  authority,  might  have  his  funeral 
monument  set.  apart  from  the  rest.  It  is,  however,  more 
worthy  of  notice  that,  although  no  other  traveller  gives  so 
minute  an  account  as  has  been  supplied  by  Herodotus,  the 
testimony  of  ancient  times  tends  decidedly  to  support  the 
main  facts  contained  in  his  narrative.  Strabo,  for  instance, 
describes  the  passages  in  the  Labyrinth  as  being  so  nume- 
rous and  artfully  contrived  that  it  was  impossible  to  enter  any 
one  of  the  palaces,  or  to  leave  it,  without  a guide.  Pliny, 

* Lib.  v.  c.  9 ; Herodotus,  book  ii.  chap.  148. 


84 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 


too,  makes  a reference  to  the  Egyptian  Labyrinth,  which 
proves,  at  least,  his  conviction  that  it  was  worthy  of  the 
fame  universally  received  concerning  it,  as  also  that  it  was 
the  pattern  of  all  the  similar  works  which  had  been  at- 
tempted in  different  parts  of  Europe. 

But  it  must  not  be  concealed  that  the  cu^yjsity  of  the 
moderns,  who  have  employed  themselves  in  searching  for 
the  remains  of  this  superb  structure,  has  been  very  gene- 
rally disappointed  ; and,  of  consequence,  that  there  is  a 
great  difference  of  opinion  among  them  as  to  its  local  posi- 
tion. Larcher  and  Gibert,  after  a long  investigation  of  the 
subject,  have  determined  the  situation  of  the  Labyrinth  to 
have  been  at  Senures  ; while  Pococke,  Banier,  and  Savary 
follow  the  ancient  historians  in  placing  it  beyond  Arsinoe, 
in  the  direction  of  the  Libyan  Desert,  and  on  the  shore  of 
Lake  Moeris.  Amid  the  ruins  of  Karoun,  accordingly, 
the  attention  of  certain  French  travellers  was  particularly 
fixed  by  the  appearance  of  several  narrow,  low,  and  very 
long  cells,  which,  it  was  thought,  could  have  had  no  other  use 
than  that  of  containing  the  sacred  crocodiles  ; and  these 
have,  therefore,  been  imagined  to  correspond  with  the  re- 
mains of  the  great  building  in  question.  But  this  suppo- 
sition is  not  confirmed  by  the  more  diligent  researches  of 
Belzoni.  Speaking  of  the  place,  he  says,  “ I observed 
several  pieces  of  white  marble  and  granite,  which  has  given 
me  reason  to  think  that  there  must  have  been  some  build- 
ing of  considerable  importance  in  this  place,  for  they  must 
have  had  more  trouble  to  convey  it  hither  than  to  any  part 
of  Egypt,  in  consequence  of  the  distance.  But  whatever 
remains  of  beauty  might  be  seen  in  this  town,  it  does  not 
appear  that  this  was  the  site  of  the  famous  Labyrinth,  nor 
any  thing  like  it ; for,  according  to  Herodotus  and  Pliny, 
there  is  not  the  smallest  appearance  which  can  warrant  the 
supposition  that  any  such  edifice  was  here.  The  Laby- 
rinth was  a structure  of  three  thousand  chambers,  one-half 
above  and  one-half  below.  The  construction  of  such  an 
immense  building,  and  the  enormous  quantity  of  materials 
which  must  have  been  accumulated,  would  have  yet  left 
specimens  enough  to  have  shown  where  it  had  been  erected, 
but  not  the  smallest  trace  of  any  such  thing  is  any  where 
to  Ire  seen.  The  town  was  about  a mile  in  circumference. 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS.  85 

with  the  terftple  in  its  centre,  so  that  I could  not  see  how 
the  Labyrinth  could  be  placed  in  this  situation.”* 

He  is  more  inclined  to  adopt  an  opinion,  founded  on  the 
narrative  of  the  Roman  naturalist,  that  this  sumptuous 
monument  of  ancient  taste  must  have  stood  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Terza,  at  the  west  end  of  the  Lake  Moeris. 
He  there  observed  several  blocks  of  white  stone  and  red 
granite,  which  evidently  must  have  been  taken  from  edifices 
of  great  magnitude.  Reflecting  on  the  description  of  Pliny, 
who  places  the  Labyrinth  in  that  very  situation,  he  made 
the  most  diligent  search  among  the  remains  of  antiquity,  to 
ascertain  whether  the  marble  fragments  bore  any  evidence 
of  the  exquisite  workmanship  ascribed  to  the  famed  struc- 
ture of  Psammeticus.  He  admits  that  he  saw  not  the 
smallest  appearance  of  an  edifice  either  on  the  ground  or 
under  it,  but,  at  the  same  time,  he  beheld  through  all  that 
part  of  the  country  a “ great  number  of  stones  and  columns 
of  beautiful  colours,  of  white  marble  and  of  granite.” 
These  materials  of  a splendid  architecture  he  observed 
scattered  about  for  the  space  of  several  miles,  some  on  the 
road,  and  some  in  the  houses  of  the  Arabs,  and  others  put 
to  various  uses  in  the  erection  of  huts.  It  was  not,  there- 
fore, without  very  plausible  reasons  that  he  arrived  at  the 
conclusion  already  stated  ; and  we  are  satisfied  that  most 
of  his  readers  will  concur  with  him  in  the  opinion  that,  by 
tracing  those  interesting  ruins  to  their  source,  the  site  of 
the  Labyrinth  might  yet  be  discovered.  It  is  true,  that 
having  been  but  little  elevated  above  the  ground,  the  build- 
ing may  be  already  buried  to  a great  depth  under  the  mass 
of  soil  and  sand  which  is  constantly  accumulating  in  all 
parts  of  the  valley. f 

Nothing  is  more  certain  than  that  the  level  of  the  lake, 
as  well  as  of  the  adjoining  land,  must  have  been  raised 
considerably  since  the  first  era  of  historical  records.  Bel- 
zoni  himself  observed,  in  one  part  of  Moeris,  pillars  and  ruins 
of  ancient  buildings  now  nearly  under  water  ; and  it  is  well 
known  that  the  present  rulers  of  -Egypt  have  more  than 
once  found  it  necessary  to  erect  new  dikes  upon  the  an- 
cient mounds,  to  obviate  the  effects  of  an  excessive  inun- 
dation. Denon,  too,  remarks  that  at  the  mouth  of  this 


* Belzoni,  vol.  ii.  p . 156. 


t Ibid.  vol.  ii.  p.  161-165. 


H 


86 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 


valley  the  remains  of  villages  overwhelmed' by  the  sand 
may  be  every  where  discovered  ; adding,  that  nothing  is  so 
melancholy  to  the  feelings  as  to  march  over  these  ruins,  to 
tread  under  foot  the  roofs  of  houses  and  the  tops  of  mina- 
rets, and  to  think  that  these  were  once  cultivated  fields, 
flourishing  gardens,  and  the  habitations  of  man.  Every 
thing  living  has  disappeared,  silence  is  within  and  around 
every  wall,  and  the  deserted  villages  are  like  the  dead, 
whose  skeletons  strike  with  terror.* 

When  these  circumstances  are  considered,  it  will  be 
allowed,  both  that  there  is  good  evidence  for  the  existence 
of  an  ancient  building  of  great  magnificence  on  the  shores 
of  Lake  Mceris,  and  also  that  the  changes  to  which  the 
neighbouring  soil  is  constantly  subjected  render  the  discov- 
ery of  the  Labyrinth,  more  especially  the  subterraneous 
chambers,  an  undertaking  of  the  utmost  uncertainty.  From 
what  still  remains  under  our  eyes,  we  are  justified  in  be- 
lieving almost  every  thing  of  Egyptian  grandeur,  when  the 
object  of  the  architect  was  to  do  honour  to  the  gods,  or  to 
preserve  the  memory  of  a beneficent  king. 

Of  the  wonderful  people,  indeed,  who  inhabit  the  banks 
of  the  Nile,  there  is  nothing  more  remarkable  than  that 
their  greatest  efforts  were  made  at  a time  when,  in  regard 
to  religious  faith,  they  were  in  the  grossest  ignorance  and 
darkness,  and  that,  when  light  sprang  up  around  them,  their 
power,  their  taste,  or  their  zeal  seemed  to  decay, — yielding 
to  the  domination  of  barbarian  tribes,  who  were  indebted  to 
them  for  all  their  knowledge,  as  well  as  for  their  supersti- 
tion. Persia  added  nothing  to  the  arts  or  architectural  im- 
provement of  Egypt ; the  Greeks  presumed  not  to  rival 
their  masters  in  the  construction  of  temples,  pyramids,  and 
labyrinths  ; and  the  propagation  of  the  true  religion,  under 
the  Roman  emperors,  put  an  end  to  the  lofty  imaginations 
which  the  subjects  of  the  Pharaohs  were  wont  to  realize  in 
their  national  structures.  Christianity,  which  blesses  every 
land  where  it  is  cordially  received,  contributed  most  of  all 
to  the  extinction  of  that  spirit  which  had  impelled  the 
Egyptians  to  undertake  and  carry  into  effect  designs  so 
vast  and  imperishable  as  those  which  still  call  forth  the  as- 
tonishment of  the  traveller.  The  days  of  their  mythology 


Denon,  vol.  ii.  p.  318. 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS 


87 


were  those  of  their  proudest  glories,  and,  we  may  add,  of 
their  greatest  happiness  and  freedom.  The  blind  belief  in 
the  divine  origin  of  their  monarchs,  as  also  the  inspiring 
dogma  that  the  soul  was  to  return  to  its  ancient  tenement 
in  the  flesh,  encouraged  them  to  erect  monuments  which 
might  resist  the  pressure  of  ten  thousand  years,  and  carry 
the  fame  of  their  authors  to  the  very  threshold  of  eternity. 
But  when  the  exercise  of  their  primitive  superstition  was 
no  longer  allowed,  and  another  faith  was  introduced  in  its 
place,  the  temples  were  gradually  abandoned,  and  the  spirit 
of  the  Egyptians,  unsubdued  by  the  severest  political  op- 
pression, yielded  at  length  to  a more  prevailing  power, 
which  directed  their  hopes  and  fears  to  the  contemplation 
of  loftier  and  more  spiritual  objects.* 

But  whatever  doubt  may  exist  in  respect  to  the  situation 
and  remains  of  the  Labyrinth,  there  can  be  none  relative 
to  the  next  great  object  of  Egyptian  art  which  we  are 
about  to  introduce  to  the  reader.  The  Pyramids,  during 
several  thousand  years,  have  attracted  the  curiosity  of  the 
traveller,  and  given  rise  to  much  learned  disquisition ; 
while  so  great  is  their  magnitude,  and  so  durable  the  mate- 
rial of  which  they  are  constructed,  that  they  present  to  the 
moderns  the  same  subject. of  study  which  was  contemplated 
by  Herodotus,  Eratosthenes,  Diodorus,  and  Strabo.  Pur- 
suing the  plan  we  have  hitherto  followed,  we  shall  first  ex- 
tract from  the  oldest  Greek  historian  the  tradition  which  pre- 
vailed in  his  days,  and  then  draw  from  other  sources  the 
most  probable  account  of  the  origin,  the  date,  the  intention, 
and  the  actual  appearance  of  those  famous  buildings. 

Herodotus,  it  is  well  known,  ascribes  the  largest  of  the 
Pyramids  to  Cheops,  a tyrannical  and  profligate  sovereign. 
“ He  barred  the  avenues  to  every  temple,  and  forbade  the 
Egyptians  to  offer  sacrifice  to  the  gods  ; after  which,  he 
compelled  the  people  at  large  to  perform  the  work  of  slaves. 
Some  he  condemned  to  hew  stones  out  of  the  Arabian 
mountains,  and  drag  them  to  the  banks  of  the  Nile  ; others 
were  stationed  to  receive  the  same  in  vessels,  and  transport 
them  to  the  edge  of  the  Libyan  Desert.  In  this  service  a 
hundred  thousand  men  were  employed,  who  were  relieved 
every  three  months.  Ten  years  were  spent  in  the  hard 


* Webster,  vol.  ii.  p.  221. 


88 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 


labour  of  forming  the  road  on  which  these  stones  were  to 
be  drawn — a work,  in  my  estimation,  of  no  less  difficulty 
and  fatigue  than  the  erection  of  the  Pyramid  itself.  This 
causeway  is  five  stadia  in  length,  forty  cubits  wide,  and  its 
greatest  height  thirty-two  cubits  ; the  whole  being  com- 
posed of  polished  marble,  adorned  with  the  figures  of  ani- 
mals. Ten  years,  as  T have  observed,  were  consumed  in 
forming  this  pavement,  in  preparing  the  hill  on  which  the 
Pyramids  are  raised,  and  in  excavating  chambers  under  the 
ground.  The  burial-place  which  he  intended  for  himself 
he  contrived  to  insulate  within  the  building,  by  introducing 
the  waters  of  the  Nile.  The  Pyramid  itself  was  a work  of 
twenty  years  ; it  is  of  a square  form,  every  side  being  eight 
plethra  in  length,  and  as  many  in  height.  The  stones  are 
very  skilfully  cemented,  and  none  of  them  of  less  dimen- 
sions than  thirty  feet.* 

“ The  ascent  of  the  Pyramid  was  regularly  graduated  by 
what  some  call  steps,  and  others  altars.  Having  finished 
the  first  tier,  they  elevated  the  stones  to  the  second  by  the 
aid  of  machines  constructed  of  short  pieces  of  wood  ; from 
the  second,  by  a similar  engine,  they  were  raised  to  the 
third  ; and  so  on  to  the  summit.  Thus  there  were  as  many 
machines  as  there  were  courses  in  the  structure  of  the  Pyra- 
mid, though  there  might  have  been  only  one,  which,  being 
easily  manageable,  could  be  raised  from  one  layer  to  the 
next  in  succession  ; both  modes  were  mentioned  to  me,  and 
I know  not  wYiich  of  them  deserves  most  credit.  The  sum- 
mit of  the  Pyramid  was  first  finished  and  coated,  and  the 
process  was  continued  downward  till  the  whole  was  com- 
pleted. Upon  the  exterior  were  recorded,  in  Egyptian 
characters,  the  various  sums  expended  in  the  progress  of 
the  work,  for  the  radishes,  onions,  and  garlic  consumed  by 
the  artificers.  This,  as  I well  remember,  my  interpreter 

* We  have  departed  from  the  common  translation  of  this  passage, 
which,  it  must  be  acknowledged,  is  shrouded  in  some  degree  of  obscu- 
rity. In  Beloe’s  version,  and  even  in  Larcher’s,  to  which  he  appears  to 
have  been  much  indebted,  the  reader  is  led  to  conclude  that  the  object 
of  the  architect,  in  forming  leads  or  canals  from  the  Nile,  was  to  sur- 
round the  Pyramids  themselves  with  water;  whereas  it  appears  that 
the  real  intention  was  to  place  in  an  island,  or,  in  other  words,  to  encloso 
With  the  sacred  stream  the  repository  of  the  royal  corpse  in  the  interior 
of  the  building — ras  iiroiiero  &r]Kas  twt/rcp  iv  vrjay,  diwpvtca  rov  NetXou 
bay  ay  tov.— Enter.  124. 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


89 


informed  me  amounted  to  no  less  a sum  than  one  thousand 
six  hundred  talents.  If  this  be  true,  how  much  more  must 
it  have  cost  for  iron  tools,  food,  and  clothes  for  the  work- 
men ! — particularly  when  we  consider  the  length  of  time  they 
were  employed  in  the  building  itself,  besides  what  was  spent 
on  the  quarrying  and  carriage  of  the  stones,  and  the  con- 
struction of  the  subterraneous  apartments. 

“ According  to  the  account  given  to  me  by  the  Egyptians, 
this  Cheops  reigned  fifty  years.  He  was  succeeded  on  the 
throne  by  his  brother  Cephrenes,  who  pursued  a policy 
similar  in  all  respects.  He  also  built  a pyramid,  but  it  was 
not  so  large  as  his  brother’s,  for  I measured  them  both.  It 
has  no  subterraneous  chambers,  nor  any  channel  for  the 
admission  of  the  Nile,  which,  in  the  other  pyramid,  is  made 
to  surround  an  island  where  the  body  of  Cheops  is  said  to 
be  deposited.  Thus,  for  the  space  of  one  hundred  and  six 
years,  the  Egyptians  were  exposed  to  every  species  of  op- 
pression and  calamity ; not  having  had,  during  this  long 
period,  permission  to  worship  in  their  temples.  Their  aver- 
sion for  the  memory  of  these  two  monarchs  is  so  great,  that 
they  have  the  utmost  reluctance  to  mention  even  their  names. 
They  call  their  pyramids  by  the  name  of  Philitis,  who,  at 
the  epoch  in  question,  fed  his  cattle  in  that  part  of  Egypt.” 

It  is  from  the  last  circumstance  mentioned  by  Herodotus 
that  the  very  reasonable  conclusion  has  been  formed  by 
Bryant,  Dr.  Hales,  and  others,  in  regard  to  the  people  by 
whom  the  Pyramids  are  supposed  to  have  been  erected. 
We  have  already  explained  the  connexion  which  subsists 
between  the  term  Pales,  Plialis,  or  Philitis,  and  the  Shep- 
herd kings  who,  having  invaded  Egypt  from  the  east,  pos- 
sessed that  country  as  masters  during  more  than  a hundred 
years,  and  who,  upon  being  expelled  by  the  indignant  na- 
tives, settled  on  the  adjoining  coast  of  Syria  under  the 
denomination  of  Philistines.  It  is  manifest,  at  first  sight, 
that  the  dynasty  of  princes  to  whom  these  stupendous  works 
are  ascribed  were  foreigners,  arid  also  that  they  professed 
a religion  hostile  to  the  animal  worship  of  the  Egyptians  ; 
for  it  is  recorded  by  the  historian,  with  an  emphatic  dis- 
tinctness, that,  during  the  whole  period  of  their  domina- 
tion, the  temples  were  shut,  sacrifices  were  prohibited,  and 
the  people  subjected  to  every  species  of  oppression  and 
salamity.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  date  of  the  Pyramids 
H 2 


00 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 


must  synchronise  with  the  epoch  of  the  Shepherd  kings, — 
those  monarchs  who  were  held  as  an  abomination  by  the 
Egyptians,  and  who,  we  may  confidently  assert,  occupied 
the  throne  of  the  Pharaohs  during  some  part  of  the  interval 
which  elapsed  between  the  birth  of  Abraham  and  the  cap- 
tivity of  Joseph. 

The  reasoning  now  advanced  will  receive  additional  con- 
firmation, when  we  consider  that  buildings  of  the  pyramidal 
order  were  not  uncommon  among  the  nations  of  the  East, 
having  probably  some  connexion  with  the  principles  of  that 
more  refined  and  lofty  adoration  which  directed  the  feelings 
of  its*votaries  to  the  magnificence  of  the  heavenly  host,  and 
to  the  influence  supposed  to  be  exercised  by  their  aspect  and 
movements  on  the  destiny  of  man.  At  the  present  day 
there  are  pyramids  in  India, — and  more  especially  in  Be- 
nares, where  there  is  one  formed  of  earth  and  covered  with 
bricks.  An  edifice  of  the  same  kind  has  been  observed  at 
Medun  in  Egypt,  constructed  in  different  stories  or  platforms, 
diminishing  in  size  as  they  rise  in  height,  until  they  termi- 
nate in  a point, — the  exact  pattern,  it  is  said,  which  was 
supplied  by  the  followers  of  Budha  in  the  plan  of  their 
ancient  pyramids,  as  these  have  been  described  by  European 
travellers,  on  the  banks  of  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges.  Such, 
too,  is  understood  to  have  been  the  form  of  the  Tower  of 
Babel,  the  object  of  which  may  have  been  to  celebrate  the 
mysteries  of  Sabaism,  the  first  and  purest  superstition  of  the 
untaught  mind.  Mr.  Wilford  informs  us,  that  on  his  de- 
scribing the  great  Egyptian  Pyramid  to  several  very  learned 
Brahmins,  they  declared  it  at  once  to  have  been  a temple ; 
and  one  of  them  asked  if  it  had  not  a communication  with 
the  river  Nile.  When  he  answered  that  such  a passage 
was  mentioned  as  having  existed,  and  that  a well  was  at  this 
day  to  be  seen,  they  unanimously  agreed  that  it  was  a place 
appropriated  to  the  worship  of  Padma  Devi,  and  that  the 
supposed  tomb  was  a trough  which,  on  certain  festivals, 
her  priests  used  to  fill  with  the  sacred  water  and  lotus- 
flowers.* 

The  most  probable  opinion  respecting  the  object  of  these 
vast  edifices  is  that  which  combines  the  double  use  of  the 
sepulchre  and  the  temple, — nothing  being  more  common  in 

* Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  iii.  p.  439. 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


91 


all  nations  than  to  bury  distinguished  men  in  places  con- 
secrated by  the  rites  of  divine  worship.  If  Cheops,  Suphis, 
or  whoever  else  was  the  founder  of  the  great  Pyramid,  in- 
tended it  only  for  his  tomb,  what  occasion  was  there,  says 
Dr.  Shaw,  for  such  a narrow  sloping  entrance  into  it,  or  for 
the  well,  as  it  is  called,  at  the  bottom,  or  for  the  lower 
chamber  with  a large  niche  or  hole  in  the  eastern  wall  of  it, 
or  for  the  long  narrow  cavities  in  the  sides  of  the  large  upper 
room,  which  likewise  is  incrusted  all  over  with  the  finest 
granite  marble, — or  for  the  two  antechambers  and  the  lofty 
gallery,  with  benches  on  each  side,  that  introduce  us  into 
it  ? As  the  whole  of  the  Egyptian  theology  was  clothed  in 
mysterious  emblems  and  figures,  it  seems  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  all  these  turnings,  apartments,  and  secrets  in 
architecture  were  intended  for  some  nobler  purpose, — for 
the  catacombs  or  burying-places  are  plain  vaulted  chambers 
hewn  out  of  the  natural  rock — and  that  the  deity  rather, 
which  was  typified  in  the  outward  form  of  this  pile,  was  to 
be  worshipped  within.* 

The  present  aspect  of  the  Pyramids  renders  it  doubtful 
whether  they  were  ever  fully  completed,  or  whether  the 
apparent  dilapidation  of  the  external  parts  ought  not  to  be 
altogether  ascribed  to  the  injuries  of  the  atmosphere  and  the 
hands  of  barbarian  conquerors.  It  is  presumed,  that  a pile 
of  this  description  was  not  regarded  as  entirely  finished 
until  it  was  coated  over  with  polished  stone,  so  as  to  fill  up 
the  vacancies  occasioned  by  the  diminution  of  the  successive 
layers  of  the  building,  and  to  render  the  surface  quite  smooth 
and  uniform  from  the  foundation  to  the  summit.  Herodotus 
states,  in  the  clearest  terms,  that,  after  the  structure  was 
raised  to  its  full  height,  the  artisans  began  to  finish  it  from 
the  top  downwards.  In  the  second  Pyramid,  accordingly, 
which  bears  the  name  of  Cephrenes,  a considerable  portion 
of  the  original  casing  still  remains ; confirming  the  accuracy 
of  the  ancient  historian  as  to  the  general  plan  of  all  such 
edifices,  and  affording,  at  the  same  time,  the  means  of  under- 
standing that  part  of  his  narrative  in  which  he  asserts  that 
a great  quantity  of  the  stone  was  brought  from  the  Arabian 
side  of  the  Nile,  and  even  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Cataracts.  It  has  been  ascertained  by  several  modem 


* Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  201. 


92 


mechanical  labours  of 


travellers  that  the  main  body  of  the  huge  masses  now  under 
consideration  is  composed  of  rocks  still  found  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  ; wc  must  therefore  infer  that  the  granite  and 
porphyry  used  for  casing  the  exterior,  as  well  as  for  the 
decorations  of  the  chambers  within,  are  to  be  identified  with 
the  materials  described  by  the  Halicarnassian,  and  which 
Strabo  and  Pliny  more  usually  designate  as  precious  stones 
and  marble.* 

The  number  of  pyramids  scattered  over  Egypt  is  very 
great ; but  by  far  the  most  remarkable  are  those  at  Djizeh, 
Sakhara,  and  Dashour.  The  first  of  these  places,  which  is 
situated  on  the  west  side  of  the  Nile,  about  ten  miles  from 
its  bank,  and  nearly  in  the  latitude  of  Grand  Cairo,  is 
distinguished  by  possessing  the  three  principal  edifices 
described  by  Herodotus,  and  which  are  still  regarded  as  the 
finest  monuments  of  this  class  that  are  to  be  seen  in  any 
part  of  the  world.  It  is  noticed  by  every  author  who  from 
personal  observation  has  described  these  wonderful  works 
of  art,  that  the  sense  of  sight  is  much  deceived  in  the  first 
attempt  to  appreciate  their  distance  and  their  magnitude. 
Though  removed  several  leagues  from  the  spectator,  they 
appear  to  be  quite  at  hand  ; and  it  is  not  until  he  has  trav- 
elled some  miles  in  a direct  line  with  their  bearing  that  he 
becomes  sensible  both  of  their  vast  bulk  and  also  of  the  pure 
atmosphere  through  which  he  had  viewed  them.  They  are 
situated  on  a platform  of  rock  about  a hundred  and  fifty 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  desert, — a circum- 
stance which  at  once  contributes  to  their  being  well  seen, 
and  also  to  the  discrepancy  that  still  prevails  among  the 
most  intelligent  travellers  as  to  their  actual  height. 

The  effect  now  alluded  to  is  well  described  by  Dr.  Rich- 
ardson. “ We  had  viewed  them  from  several  points  of 
observation  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  and  all  along 
the  whole  course  of  the  canal  kept  constantly  looking  at 
them ; but  our  recollections  were  so  occupied  with  exag- 
gerated descriptions  of  their  enormous  dimensions  that  every 
look  was  followed  by  disappointment ; the  eye  always  en- 
countered something  less  than  the  mind  expected  it  to  see  ; 


* It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  every  stone  which  admitted  of  a fine 
polish  and  shone  in  the  light  was  called  marble,  from  pappatpuv,  to 
glisten  or  shine. 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


93 


and,  now  that  we  were,  comparatively  speaking,  at  their  base, 
and  looking  up  from  the  low  sandy  bank  to  the  Pyramids  on 
the  rocky  elevation  above,  our  idea  of  their  magnitude  was 
not  increased.  Even  those  of  the  party  who  exercised  the 
greatest  self-control,  and  scarcely  cast  a look  on  those 
ancient  piles  during  the  whole  time  of  our  approach,  felt 
disappointed  with  the  diminished  grandeur  of  their  appear- 
ance.”* 

It  was  not,  in  short,  until  their  eyes  became  accustomed 
to  the  outline  of  the  stupendous  pile  of  masonry  that  they 
could  form  an  estimate  of  its  real  dimensions  ; after  which 
they  were  hardly  able  to  convince  themselves  that  such 
enormous  structures  were  really  the  work  of  human  hands. 
In  most  parts  of  Europe,  the  refraction  occasioned  by  a 
moist  climate  raises  distant  objects  above  the  true  angle  of 
vision,  and  confers  upon  them  an  apparent  magnitude, 
which  a nearer  inspection  never  fails  to  correct.  But  in 
Egypt,  on  the  contrary,  the  air  of  which  is  extremely  dry 
and  transparent,  the  atmospherical  effect  is  reversed,  and, 
accordingly,  the  first  glance  of  the  Pyramids  from  the  banks 
of  the  Nile  is  usually  felt  to  form  a striking  contrast  to  all 
the  preconceived  notions  of  the  traveller. 

The  largest  Pyramid  stands  on  an  elevation  free  all 
round,  on  which  account  the  accumulation  of  sand  in  con- 
tact with  it  is  less  than  might  have  been  apprehended.  It 
has,  however,  suffered  much  from  human  violence,  immense 
heaps  of  broken  stones  having  fallen  down  on  each  side, 
which  form  a high  mound  towards  the  middle  of  the  base. 
The  corners  are  pretty  clear,  where  the  foundation  is  readily 
discovered,  particularly  at  the  north-west  angle  ; but  it  is 
impossible  to  see  straight  along  the  line  of  the  base  on 
account  of  these  heaps  of  rubbish.  Hence,  as  has  been 
already  suggested,  the  difficulty  of  making  an  exact  mea- 
surement, and  the  frequent  disagreement  of  the  results  ; it 
being  impracticable,  without  removing  the  sand  and  fallen 
stones,  to  run  a straight  line  all  the  way  in  contact  with  the 
building.  Dr.  Richardson  paced  one  side  at  a little  dis- 
tance from  the  wall,  and  found  it  two  hundred  and  forty- 
two  steps  ; whence  he  conjectures  that  the  extent  of  seven 
hundred  feet,  usually  assigned  to  it,  is  not  far  from  the  truth. 

• Travels  along  the  Mediterranean  and  Parts  Adjacent,  vol,  i.  p.  119. 


94 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  Of 


The  entrance  into  the  Pyramid  is  on  the  north  side,  and 
is  nearly  in  the  centre,  about  an  equal  distance  from  each 
angle  ; being,  at  the  same  time,  elevated  about  thirty  feet 
above  the  base,  probably  that  it  might  be  more  difficult  for 
a conqueror  to  discover  it,  and  less  liable  to  be  blocked  up 
with  sand.  The  ascent  to  it  is  over  a heap  of  stones  and 
rubbish,  that  have  either  fallen  from  the  Pyramid,  or  been 
forced  out  and  thrown  down  in  the  various  efforts  made  at 
successive  periods  to  find  a passage  into  the  interior.  This 
heap  at  present  rises  considerably  above  the  entrance,  which 
is  a small  orifice  not  more  than  three  feet  and  a half  square  : 
it  is  lined  above  and  below,  and  on  either  side,  with  broad 
flat  rocks  of  red  granite,  smooth  and  highly  polished.  The 
flags  in  the  bottom  of  the  passage  are  formed  with  alter- 
nate depressions  and  elevations,  in  order  to  afford  a firm 
footing  to  the  person  descending ; but  this,  it  is  presumed, 
is  a modern  operation,  because  the  depressions  are  not 
smooth  and  polished  like  the  rest  of  the  stones. 

After  advancing  nearly  a hundred  feet  into  the  entrance, 
which  slopes  downward  at  an  angle  of  about  twenty-six 
degrees,  the  explorer  finds  an  opening  on  the  right-hand, 
which  conducts  him  up  an  inclined  plane  to  the  queen’s 
chamber,  as  travellers  have  agreed  to  call  it, — an  apartment 
seventeen  feet  long,  fourteen  feet  wide,  and  twelve  feet  high 
to  the  point  on  which  the  roof  is  suspended.  " Ascending  a 
similar  passage,  but  somewhat  steeper  than  the  first,  he 
perceives  another  chamber  of  larger  dimensions,  being  thirty- 
seven  feet  two  inches  long,  seventeen  feet  two  inches  wide, 
and  about  twenty  feet  in  height.  This  is  denominated  the 
king’s  chamber, — but  upon  no  better  authority  that  we  can 
discover  than  the  caprice  of  tourists  already  converted  into 
a local  tradition.  Its  magnificence,  however,  entitles  it  in 
some  degree  to  the  distinction  which  it  has  obtained.  It  is 
lined  all  round  with  large  slabs  of  highly-polished  granite, 
reaching  from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling  ; this  last  being  formed 
of  nine  immense,  flags  which  stretch  from  wall  to  wall. 
Towards  the  west  end  of  the  room  stands  the  sarcophagus, 
which  likewise  consists  of  red  granite  highly  polished,  but 
without  either  sculpture  or  hieroglyphics.  Its  length  is 
seven  feet  six  inches,  while  the  depth  and  width  are  each 
three  feet  three  inches.  There  is  no  lid,  nor  was  there  any 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS.  95 

thing  found  in  it  except  a few  fragments  of  the  stone  with 
which  the  chamber  is  decorated. 

As  this  room  does  not  reach  beyond  the  centre  of  the 
Pyramid,  Dr.  Richardson  suggests  the  very  probable  opinion 
that  there  are  other  passages  leading  to  other  chambers  in 
communication  with  it ; the  entrance  to  which  would,  it  is 
very  likely,  be  found  by  removing  some  of  the  granite  slabs 
which  serve  as  wainscoting  to  the  walls.  To  present  to  the 
eye  a uniform  surface  in  the  interior  of  an  apartment  was 
one  of  the  devices  usually  employed  by  an  architect  in  old 
times  when  he  wished  to  conceal  from  an  ordinary  observer 
the  approach  to  a secret  retreat, — reserving  to  himself  and 
his  employer  the  knowledge  of  the  particular  stone  which 
covered  the  important  orifice,  as  well  as  the  means  of  ob- 
taining a ready  access. 

A third  chamber,  still  higher  in  the  body  of  the  Pyramid 
than  either  of  the  two  just  mentioned,  was  discovered  by 
Mr.  Davison,  who  about  sixty  years  ago  was  British  consul 
at  Cairo.  Having  on  one  of  his  visits  observed  a hole  in 
the  top  of  the  gallery,  he  resolved  to  ascertain  the  object 
of  it,  and  whether  it  led  to  any  apartment  which  had  not 
yet  been  described.  For  this  purpose  he  made  seven  short 
ladders  in  such  a manner  as  to  fasten  one  to  another  by 
means  of  four  wooden  pins, — the  whole  set,  when  joined, 
being  about  twenty-six  feet  in  length.  When  all  the  parts 
were  put  together,  the  ladder  entered  enough  into  the  hole 
to  prevent  it  from  sliding  on  the  side  of  the  gallery.  He 
then  mounted,  and  found  a passage  two  feet  four  inches 
square,  which  turned  immediately  to  the  right.  He  entered 
a little  way,  with  his  face  on  the  ground,  but  was  obliged  to 
retire  on  account  of  the  passage  being  in  a great  measure 
choked  with  dust  and  bats’  dung,  which  in  some  places  was 
near  a foot  deep.  He  first  thought  of  clearing  a path  by 
throwing  the  dirt  down  into  the  gallery ; but,  foreseeing 
that  this  would  be  a work  of  some  time,  he  determined  to 
make  another  effort  to  enter,  which  was  attended  with  more 
success  than  the  first.  He  was  able  to  creep  in,  though  with 
much  difficulty,  not  only  on  account  of  the  lowness  of  the 
passage,  but  likewise  the  quantity  of  dust  which  he  raised. 
Wrhen  he  had  advanced  a little  way,  he  discovered  what  he 
supposed  to  be  the  end  of  the  approach.  His  surprise  was 
great  when  he  reached  it,  to  find  to  the  right  a straight 


96 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 


passage  into  a long,  broad,  but  low  place,  which  he  knew, 
as  well  by  the  length  as  the  direction  of  the  entry  he  had 
come  in  at,  to  be  immediately  above  the  large  room.  The 
stones  of  granite  which  are  at  the  top  of  the  latter  form  the 
bottom  of  this,  but  are  uneven,  being  of  unequal  thickness. 
The  room  is  four  feet  longer  than  the  one  below  ; in  the 
latter  you  see  only  seven  stones,  and  a half  of  one  on  each 
side  of  them  ; but  in  that  above  the  nine  are  entire,  the  two 
halves  resting  on  the  wall  at  each  end.  The  breadth  is 
equal  with  that  of  the  room  below.  The  covering  of  this, 
as  of  the  other,  is  of  beautiful  granite,  but  it  is  composed 
of  eight  stones  instead  of  nine,  the  number  in  the  room 
below.  At  this  stage  of  the  investigation  Mr.  Davison  was 
joined  by  some  of  his  attendants,  who,  being  a great  deal 
troubled  with  the  dust  and  want  of  air,  soon  retired.  At 
length,  after  having  measured  and  examined  every  part  of  the 
chamber,  he  also  descended  by  the  ladder,  satisfied  that  no 
more  could  be  accomplished  without  the  accession  of  greater 
strength  and  means.* 

The  same  room  was  entered  and  explored  a few  years 
ago  by  Mr.  Caviglia,  to  whose  enterprising  spirit  the  anti- 
quaries of  Egypt  are  under  great  obligations,  but  without 
adding  any  thing  to  our  knowledge  of  its  structure  or  in- 
tention. He  remarks,  tjiat  the  sides  of  the  chamber  were 
coated  with  red  granite  of  the  finest  polish  ; and  he  ascer- 
tained that  the  unevenness  of  the  floor  was  occasioned  by 
its  being  formed  of  the  individual  blocks  of  syenite  which 
constitute  the  roof  of  the  chamber  below ; hence  they 
must  be  wedged  in  on  the  principle  of  the  arch.  The  bats’ 
dung,  which  in  the  time  of  Mr.  Davison  was  a foot  in  depth, 
had  now  increased  to  a foot  and  a half. 

But  it  is  extremely  doubtful,  even  after  these  laborious 
endeavours,  whether  we  have  yet  made  farther  progress  in 
dissecting  the  structure  of  the  Pyramid  than  was  attained 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  two  thousand  years  ago  ; for  it 
is  worthy  of  notice  that  every  recess  which  has  been  ex- 
plored in  modern  times  bears  marks  of  having  been  ex- 
amined by  former  adventurers.  We  find,  besides,  that  the 
narrow  entrance  into  the  great  Pyramid  was  known  to 

* Memoirs  relating  to  European  and  Asiatic  Turkey,  edited  from  MS. 
Journals  by  Robert  Walpole,  M.  A.  p.  354. 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


97 


Strabo,  which  he  tells  us  had  a stone  placed  at  the  mouth 
of  it  to  be  removed  at  pleasure.  The  same  author  likewise, 
as  well  as  Herodotus,  was  acquainted  with  the  subterra- 
neous chambers,  and  Pliny  has  left  a description  of  the 
well.  It  is  true  that  they  declined  to  enter  into  many  par- 
ticulars which  could  hardly  fail  to  have  met  their  observation, 
— an  omission  which  we  are  justified,  at  least  in  the  case 
of  Herodotus,  in  attributing  to  certain  superstitious  notions 
of  their  sanctity  and  mysterious  uses. 

The  account  given  by  Mr.  Davison  of  his  descent  into 
the  well,  now  alluded  to,  is  so  interesting  that  we  cannot 
withhold  from  the  reader  an  outline  of  his  proceedings. 
Conceiving  it  to  be  very  deep,  he  provided  himself  with  a 
large  quantity  of  rope,  one  end  of  which  he  tied  round  his 
waist ; and  letting  down  a lantern  attached  to  a small  cord, 
he  resolutely  prepared  to  follow.  With  no  small  difficulty 
he  prevailed  on  two  of  his  servants  and  three  Arabs  to  hold 
the  line, — the  latter  assuring  him  that  there  were  ghosts 
below,  and  that  he  never  could  hope  to  return.  Taking 
with  him  a few  sheets  of  paper,  a compass,  a measure,  and 
another  lighted  candle,  he  commenced  the  descent,  and  soon 
reached  the  bottom  of  the  first  well  or  shaft.  Here  he 
found,  on  the  south  side,  at  the  distance  of  about  eight 
feet  from  the  place  where  he  landed,  a second  opening, 
which  descended  perpendicularly  to  the  depth  of  five  feet 
only;  and  at  four  feet  ten  inches  from  the  bottom  of  this 
he  discovered  a third  shaft,  the  mouth  of  which  was  nearly 
blocked  up  with  a large  stone,  leaving  an  opening  barely 
sufficient  to  allow  a man  to  pass.  Here  he  dropped  down 
his  lantern,  not  only  with  the  view  of  ascertaining  to  what 
depth  he  was  about  to  proceed,  but  also  to  determine 
whether  the  air  were  pernicious  or  otherwise.  The  shaft, 
however,  was  so  tortuous  that  the  candle  soon  became  in- 
visible ; but  the  consul  was  not  to  be  discouraged,  as  nothing 
less  than  a journey  to  the  bottom  would  satisfy  his  eager 
curiosity.  His  main  difficulty  arose  from  the  superstitious 
dread  of  the  Arabs,  who  could  hardly  be  prevailed  upon  to 
go  down  and  hold  the  rope.  After  many  prayers,  and 
threats,  and  promises  of  money,  and  of  all  the  treasure 
which  might  be  found  in  the  well,  the  avarice  of  one  man 
so  far  overcame  his  terror  that  he  ventured  to  descend ; 

I 


98 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 


though,  on  reaching  the  bottom,  “ he  stared  about  him  pate 
and  trembling,  and  appeared  more  like  a spectre  than  a 
human  being.” 

Mr.  Davison  now  pushed  forward  with  the  rope  round 
his  body,  being  convinced,  from  the  distant  view  of  the 
lantern  which  he  had  let  down,  that  this  well  was  somewhat 
deeper  than  the  first.  Having  proceeded  a little  farther 
than  half-way  to  the  spot  where  the  candle  had  rested,  he 
came  to  a grotto  about  fifteen  feet  long,  four  or  five  wide, 
and  nearly  the  height  of  a man.  From  this  place  the  third 
shaft  or  well  was  sloping  ; and,  by  throwing  down  a stone, 
he  ascertained  it  to  be  of  much  greater  depth  than  the 
others.  But,  still  resolved  to  persevere,  he  pushed  the 
lantern  a little  before  him,  and  set  out  afresh  on  his  jour- 
ney, calling  to  the  Arab  to  loosen  the  rope  gently,  and 
availing  himself  of  little  holes  made  in  the  rock*,  obviously 
with  the  purpose  of  aiding  a descent.  At  length,  the  shaft 
beginning  to  return  a little  more  to  the  perpendicular,  he 
arrived  speedily  at  the  bottom,  where  he  found  all  farther 
passage  precluded  by  a large  accumulation  of  sand  and 
rubbish. 

Having  reached  this  point,  our  adventurer  began  to 
reflect  on  two  circumstances  which  had  not  before  occurred 
to  him,  either  of  which  would  have  agitated  weaker  nerves. 
The  first  was,  that  the  multitude  of  bats  which  he  had  dis- 
turbed might  put  out  his  candle ; and  the  second,  that  the 
immense  stone  on  the  mouth  of  the  pit  might  slip  down 
and  close  the  passage  for  ever.  On  looking  about  the 
bottom  he  found  a rope-ladder,  which,  though  it  had  lain 
there  sixteen  years,  was  as  fresh  and  strong  as  if  perfectly 
new.  It  had  been  used,  as  is  conjectured,  by  Mr.  Wood, — 
the  author  of  a work  on  the  ruins  of  Balbec  and  Palmyra, 
— to  assist  his  progress  downwards  ; but  he,  it  is  concluded, 
must  have  stopped  short  at  the  grotto.  When  Mr.  Davison, 
on  his  return,  had  reached  the  bottom  of  the  first  shaft,  the 
candles  fell  and  went  out ; upon  which  “ the  poor  Arab 
thought  himself  lost.”  He  laid  hold  of  the  rope,  as  his 
master  was  about  to  ascend,  declaring  that  he  would  rather 
have  his  brains  blown  out  than.be  left  alone  there  with  the 
Devil.  “ I therefore  permitted  him,”  says  the  consul,  “ to 
go  before  ; and,  though  it  was  much  more  difficult  to  ascend 
than  to  descend,  I know  not  how  it  was,  but  he  scrambled 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS.  99 

up  a hundred  times  more  quickly  than  he  had  come 
down.”* 

The  depth  of  the  first  shaft  was  twenty-two  feet ; of  the 
second  twenty-nine  ; and  of  the  third,  ninety-nine  ; which, 
with  the  five,  feet  between  the  first  and  second,  makes  the 
whole  descent  one  hundred  and  fifty -five;  f 

It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  the  dimensions  assigned 
to  the  well  by  Pliny  were  eighty-six  cubits, — an  approxi- 
mation to  the  truth  which  must  remove  all  doubt  from  the 
mind  of  every  candid  reader  that  the  honour  of  detecting 
the  intricacies  of  the  great  Pyramid  was  not  reserved  to 
the  moderns.  The  Romans  appear  to  have  taken  a consid- 
erable interest  in  the  architectural  antiquities  of  Egypt,  the 
names  of  their  favourite  princes  being  inscribed  on  the. 
monuments ; and  hence  it  might  have  been  inferred  that 
this,  one.  of  the  greatest  works  of  the  ancient  world,  would 
not  fail  to  attract  their  attention. 

The  latest  and  the  most  complete  survey,  however,  made 
of  the  hidden  caverns  of  the  Pyramid  of  Cheops,  is  that 
accomplished  by  Mr.  Caviglia,  the  spirited  foreigner  already 
mentioned.  In  his  first  attempt  to  sound  the  depths  of  the 
celebrated  well,  he  descended  as  far  as  Mr.  Davison  had 
done,  and  with  nearly  similar  results.  But  he  was  by  no 
means  satisfied  with  the  issue  of  his  labour.  Observing 
that  the  groiifid  under  his  feet  gave  a hollow  sound,  he  sus- 
pected that  there  must  be  some  concealed  outlet.  He  ac- 
cordingly determined  to  resume  operations  ; and  with  this 
view  he  hired  several  Arabs,  whom  he  employed  in  drawing 
up  the  rubbish  from  the  bottom  with  baskets  and  cords.  In 
a short  time,  however,  owing  to  the  extreme  reluctance  of 
these  people  to  work,  he  was  compelled  to  suspend  his 
undertaking  until  an  oider  from  the  Kaiya-bey  was  procured, 
which  had  the  effect  of  subduing  their  indolence,  and,  to  a 
certain  degree,  of  removing  their  prejudices.  It  is  not, 

* In  the  letter  to  M.  Varsy,  of  which  the  above  is  an  abridgment,  Mr. 
Davison  remarks,  “ Vous  avez  beau  dire  que  j’aurais  dd  regarder  eomme 
honorable  d’etre  enseveli  dans  un  de  ces  fameux  mot  lumens  qui  n’ont  4te 
destines  que  pour  les  grands  rois.  Je  vous  avoue  franchement,  Mon- 
sieur, que  je  n’avais  pas  la  moindre  ambition  a cet  dgard.  Bien  au  con- 
traire,  j’etais  cent  fois  plus  content  desortir  etrevoir  le  jour.” 

+ See  Walpole’s  Memoirs,  p.  350,  for  the  narrative  of  Mr.  Davison ; 
and  Quarterly  Review,  vol.  xix.  p.  392,  which  contains  an  original  com- 
munication from  Mr.  Salt. 


100 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 


indeed,  surprising  that  the  natives  should  have  manifested 
reluctance  to  labour  in  circumstances  so  appalling  ; being 
confined  in  a place  where,  owing  to  the  impurity  of  the 
atmosphere,  no  light  would  burn  longer  than  half  an  hour, 
and  where  the  heat  was  so  intense  as  to  threaten  suffocation. 
At  length,  in  fact,  it  became  so  intolerable  that  one  Arab 
was  carried  up  nearly  dead,  and  several  others,  on  their 
ascending  to  the  surface,  fainted  away  ; so  that,  at  last,  in 
defiance  of  the  command  laid  upon  them,  they  almost  en- 
tirely abandoned  the  task,  declaring  that  they  were  willing 
to  work,  but  not  to  die  for  him. 

Thus  opposed  and  disappointed,  Mr.  Caviglia  next  turned 
his  attention  to  the  clearing  of  the  principal  entry  or  pas- 
sage into  the  Pyramid,  which,  from  time  immemorial,  had 
been  so  blocked  up  as  to  oblige  those  who  ventured  within 
its  orifice  to  creep  on  their  hand^  and  knees.  His  chief 
object  in  this  undertaking  was  to  improve  the  ventilation 
of  the  interior, — a purpose  which  he  not  only  carried  into 
effect,  but,  moreover,  in  the  course  of  his  labours,  he  made 
the  unexpected  discovery  that  the  main  passage  leading  from 
the  entry  did  not  terminate  in  the  manner  asserted  by 
Maillet,  and  believed  by  all  his  successors.  On  the  con- 
trary, having  removed  several  large  masses  of  calcareous 
stone  and  granite,  apparently  placed  there  to  obstruct  all 
farther  progress,  he  found  that  it  still  continued  in  the  same 
inclined  plane  downwards,  was  of  the  same  dimensions,  and 
had  its  sides  worked  with  the  same  care  as  in  the  portion 
above,  though  filled  up  nearly  to  the  top  with  earth  and  frag- 
ments of  rock.  After  clearing  it  out  to  the  length  of  a 
hundred  and  fifty  feet,  the  air  became  again  so  impure,  and 
the  heat  so  suffocating,  that  he  had  once  more  the  same 
difficulties  to  encounter  with  regard  to  the  Arabs.  Even 
his  own  health  was  at  this  time  visibly  impaired,  and  he  was 
attacked  with  a spitting  of  blood  ; but  nothing  could  induce 
him  to  desist  from  his  interesting  researches. 

After  the  lapse  of  the  third  month  from  the  time  at  which 
he  began  his  toils,  he  had  excavated  as  far  as  two  hundred 
feet  in  the  new  passage  without  any  thing  particular  occur- 
ring, when,  shortly  afterward,  a door  on  the  right-hand 
was  discovered,  from  which,  in  the  course  of  a few  hours, 
a strong  smell  of  sulphur  was  perceived  to  issue.  Mr. 
Caviglia,  having  now  recollected  that  when  at  the  bottom 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


101 


of  the  well,  in  his  first  enterprise,  he  had  burned  some  sul- 
phur for  the  purpose  of  purifying  the  air,  conceived  it  prob- 
able that  this  doorway  might  communicate  with  it, — an 
idea  which,  in  a little  time,  he  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing 
realized,  by  discovering  that  it  opened  at  .once  upon  the 
bottom  of  the  well,  where  he  found  the  baskets,  cords,  and 
other  implements,  which  had  been  left  there  on  his  recent 
attempt  at  a farther  excavation.  This  discovery  was  so  far 
valuable  as  it  afforded  a complete  circulation  of  air  along 
the  whole  passage,  and  up  the  shaft  of  the  well,  and  thereby 
obviated  all  danger  for  the  future,  arising  from  the  noxious 
condition  of  the  atmosphere.* 

But  the  passage  did  not  terminate  at  the  doorway  which 
opened  upon  the  bottom  of  the  well.  Continuing  to  the 
distance  of  twenty-three  feet  beyond  it,  in  the  same  angle 
of  inclination,  it  became  narrower,  and  took  a horizontal 
direction  for  about  twenty-eight  feet  farther,  where  it  opened 
into  a spacious  apartment  immediately  under  the  central 
point  of  the  Pyramid.  This  new  chamber  is  sixty-six  feet 
long  by  twenty-seven  broad,  with  a flat  roof ; and,  when  first 
entered,  was  found  nearly  filled  with  large  stones  and  rub- 
bish, which  Mr.  Caviglia  succeeded  in  removing.  The 


* It  is  amusing  to  contrast  the  indefatigable  exertions  of  this  individual, 
whose  sole  motives  were  derived  from  an  enlightened  curiosity  and  a 
desire  to  benefit  the  literary  world,  with  the  cautious  procedure  of  Colonel 
Coutelle,  one  of  Buonaparte’s  military  savans : — “ J’arrivai  a l’extr^mite, 
mais  non  pas  4 point  ou  s’etaient  arr£tes  les  ouvriers : le  fond  etait  rempli 
de  terre  et  de  cailloux  roules ; j’en  remplis  une  de  mes  poches ; ensuite 
je  pris  toutes  les  mesures  dont  j’avais  besoin.  Mais  deja  ma  lumi^re 
4tait  pale ; ma  respiration  plus  gen4e ; le  thermomdtre  de  Keaumur  etait 
audessus  de  25  degr6s,”  &c.  After  filling  one  of  his  pockets  with  the 
rubbish  which  impeded  his  progress  into  the  secret  apartments  of  the 
Pyramid,  the  gallant  colonel  withdrew,  uttering  imprecations  against 
the  detestable  atmosphere,  which  at  once  affected  his  breathing  and 
raised  the  thermometer. — Descrip,  de  l\ Egypt.  Antiquities , vol.  ii.  p.  39. 

The  same  writer  informs  us  that  the  French,  hoping  to  find  many  an- 
tiquities fresh  and  undesecrated  in  the  interior  of  a pyramid  not  yet 
touched,  adopted  the  resolution  of  demolishing  one  of  the  third  or  fourth 
class  from  top  to  bottom.  It  is  stated  that  every  layer  of  stone  was  from 
a yard  to  a yard  and  a half  in  depth,  and  that  all  the  blocks,  being  of  a 
dimension  proportioned  to  their  thickness,  weighed  about  twelve  thou- 
sand pounds  (6000  kilogrammes)  a piece.  But,  after  having  advanced 
about  half  way  in  the  process  of  demolition,  they  were  obliged  to  relin- 
quish the  enterprise ; leaving,  says  the  colonel,  the  fruit  which  would 
have  indemnified  their  toils  to  be  reaped  by  those  who  were  to  come  after 
them- 


12 


102 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 


platform  of  the  floor,  which  is  dug  out  of  the  rock,  is  irregular, 
nearly  one-half  of  the  length  from  the  east  end  being  level, 
and  about  fifteen  feet  from  the  ceiling ; while  in  the  middle  it 
descends  five  feet  lower,  in  which  there  is  a hollow  space, 
bearing  all  the  appearance  of  the  commencement  of  a well 
or  shaft.  From  this  point  it  rises  to  the  western  end  ; so 
that  at  the  extremity  there  is  scarcely  room  between  the 
floor  and  the  roof  for  a man  to  stand  upright,  the  whole 
chamber  having  the  appearance  of  an  unfinished  excava- 
tion. Mr.  Salt,  however,  is  disposed  to  think;  after  a care- 
ful comparison  of  it  with  other  subterranean  apartments 
which  have  been  disfigured  by  the  combined  effects  of  time 
and  the  rude  hands  of  curious  visiters,  that  it  may  once 
have  been  highly  wrought,  and  used,  perhaps,  for  the  per- 
formance of  solemn  and  sacred  mysteries.  Some  Roman 
characters,  rudely  formed,  had  been  marked  with  the  flame 
of  a candle  on  the  rock,  part  of  which,  having  mouldered 
away,  rendered  the  words  illegible.  The  same  gentleman 
had  flattered  himself  that  this  chamber  would  turn  out  to  be 
the  one  described  by  Herodotus,  as  containing  the  tomb  of 
Cheops,  which  was  insulated  by  a stream  drawn  from  the 
Nile  ; but  the  want  of  an  inlet  for  the  sacred  fluid,  and  the 
elevation  of  the  floor  thirty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  river 
at  its  highest  inundation,  put  an  end  to  this  delusive  opinion. 
From  an  expression  of  Strabo,  however,  purporting  that  the 
passage  from  the  entrance  leads  directly  down  to  the  cham- 
ber which  contains  the  sarcophagus,  he  thinks,  and  perhaps 
justly,  that  this  apartment  was  the  only  one  known  to  the 
Greek  geographer. 

On  the  south  side  of  this  spacious  excavation  there  is  a 
passage  just  wide  and  high  enough  for  a man  to  creep  along 
on  his  hands  and  knees,  continuing  horizontally  in  the  rock 
for  fifty-five  feet ; but  there  it  abruptly  terminates.  Another 
opening  at  the  east  end  of  the  chamber  commences  with  a 
kind  of  arch,  and  runs  about  forty  feet  into  the  solid  rock  of 
the  Pyramid.  A third  passage  is  mentioned,  but  so  ob- 
scurely that  we  cannot  ascertain  either  its  direction  or 
dimensions.  It  is  not,  however,  to  be  imagined  that  these 
passages  had  no  object,  or  that  they  originally  terminated  at 
the  point  where  the  curiosity  of  modern  travellers  meets  a 
check  from  the  accumulation  of  rubbish,  or,  perhaps,  from 
the  intervention  of  a regular  portcullis,  such  as  Belzoni 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


103 


encountered  in  the  second  Pyramid.  Dr.  Richardson,  in- 
deed, insinuates  that  the  avenues  in  question  have  not  been 
actually  explored  by  several  writers  who  have  thought 
proper  to  describe  them, — a charge  which,  we  are  satisfied, 
does  not  apply  to  Caviglia,  whose  exertions  were  only 
limited  by  the  utmost  bounds  of  human  energy  and  perse- 
verance. 

Before  we  proceed  to  some  more  general  observations  on 
the  history  and  comparative  magnitude  of  the  Pyramids, 
we  shall  present  to  the  reader  a short  account  of  the  discov- 
eries made  by  Belzoni  in  the  interior  of  that  which  bears 
the  name  of  Cephrenes. 

As  Herodotus,  whose  fidelity  has  been  generally  approved 
by  the  investigations  of  more  recent  times,  gave  assurance 
that  there  were  no  chambers  in  this  edifice,  a long  time  had 
passed  without  any  attempt  being  made  to  penetrate  its 
outer  walls.  In  fact,  such  an  undertaking  was  regarded  as 
equally  romantic  and  impracticable.  The  French  philoso- 
phers who  accompanied  the  invading  army  led  by  Buona- 
parte made  several  endeavours  to  find  an  entrance,  but, 
perceiving  no  trace  in  the  building  which  could  encourage 
the  belief  that  it  had  ever  been  perforated,  they  left  it  in 
despair.  The  resolution  of  Belzoni,  however,  a private 
unassisted  individual,  achieved  a conquest  over  the  mystery 
of  ancient  art,  which  the  power  and  ingenuity  of  a great 
nation  had  relinquished  as  beyond  the  reach  of  human 
means.  His  success  in  detecting  the  sepulchral  labyrinths 
of  Thebes  inflamed  him  at  once  with  the  desire  and  the 
confidence  of  discovering  a passage  into  the  secret  cham- 
bers of  Cephrenes,  the  reputed  founder  of  the  second 
Pyramid. 

His  first  attempt  was  not  attended  with  an  adequate 
degree  of  success,  while  the  labour  and  expense  which  it 
entailed  upon  him  were  so  great  as  would  have  cooled  the 
ardour  of  a less  zealous  antiquary.  He  began  by  forcing  a 
passage,  which  he  was  soon  obliged  to  abandon,  as  equally 
hopeless  to  himself  and  dangerous  to  the  persons  employed. 
But  this  disappointment  only  increased  his  desire  to  accom- 
plish an  object  on  which  he  had  staked  his  happiness  as  well 
as  his  reputation.  Observing  minutely  the  exterior  of  the 
Great  Pyramid,  he  satisfied  himself  that  the  passage  was 
not  placed  exactly  in  the  middle  of  the  building,  but  that  it 


104 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 


ran  in  a straight  line  to  the  eastern  side  of  what  is  called 
the  king’s  chamber ; which  being  in  the  centre  of  the 
Pyramid,  he  conjectured  that  the  entrance  must  be  as  far 
from  the  middle  of  the  face  as  is  the  distance  from  the  centre 
of  the  chamber  to  the  east  end  of  it.  Having  made  this 
clear  and  simple  observation,  he  concluded,  that,  if  there 
were  any  chamber  in  the  second  Pyramid,  the  orifice  could 
not  be  at  the  spot  where  he  had  begun  his  excavation,  but, 
calculating  by  the  position  of  the  passage  in  the  first,  nearly 
thirty  feet  farther  east. 

Encouraged  by  these  new  views,  he  returned  to  his  task, 
and  was  immediately  delighted  to  observe,  that  at  the  very 
place  where  he  intended  to  recommence  operations,  there 
was  a hollow  on  the  surface  of  the  building.  Any  traveller, 
says  he,  who  shall  hereafter  visit  the  Pyramids  may  plainly 
perceive  this  concavity  above  the  true  entrance.  Summon- 
ing his  Arabs,  he  forthwith  resumed  his  toils  ; and  so  cor- 
rect was  his  measurement  that  he  did  not  deviate  more  than 
two  feet  from  the  mouth  of  the  passage  which  was  to  admit 
him  into  the  recesses  of  this  vast  edifice.  The  native  work- 
men were  indeed  as  skeptical  as  ever,  entertaining  not  the 
slightest  expectation  that  any  approach  would  ever  be  dis- 
covered, and  occasionally  muttering  their  opinion  of  him 
in  the  expressive  tenn  magnoon , which,  in  their  language, 
denotes  madman  or  fool. 

After  clearing  away  a great  deal  of  rubbish,  and  cutting 
through  massy  stones,  he  had  the  satisfaction  to  see  the 
edge  of  a block  of  granite, — the  material  used  for  casing 
the  passages  in  the  Pyramid  of  Cheops, — inclining  down- 
ward at  the  same  angle  as  in  the  latter  building,  and  point- 
ing towards  tne  centre.  On  the  following  day  three  large 
slabs  were  discovered,  one  on  each  side,  and  the  third  on 
the  top, — indicating  very  distinctly  that  the  object  of  his 
search  was  now  about  to  be  realized.  In  a few  hours, 
accordingly,  the  right  entrance  into  the  Pyramid  was 
opened, — proving  to  be  a passage  four  feet  high,  and  three 
feet  six  inches  wide,  formed  of  granite,  and  descending  a 
hundred  and  four  feet  towards  the  centre,  at  an  angle  of 
twenty-six  degrees.  Nearly  all  this  passage  was  filled  with 
large  stones  which  had  fallen  from  the  upper  part,  and,  as 
the  floor  slopes  downwards,  they  had  slid  on  till  some- 
larger  than  the  rest  stopped  the  way. 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


105 


The  next  portion  of  his  task  was  to  remove  this  rubbish, 
which  had  extended  even  to  the  entrance  of  the  chamber. 
At  length  he  reached  a portcullis,  which,  being  a fixed 
block  of  stone,  at  first  sight  appeared  to  obstruct  all  further 
progress  into  the  interior.  “ It  stared  me  in  the  face,”  said 
Mr.  Belzoni,  “ and  said  ne  plus  ultra , — putting  an  end,  as 
I thought,  to  all  my  projects  for  it  made  a close  joint 
with  the  groove  at  each  side,  and  on  the  top  it  seemed  as 
firm  as  the  rock  itself  which  formed  the  passage.  On  a 
close  inspection,  however,  he  perceived  that,  at  the  bottom, 
it  was  raised  about  eight  inches  from  the  lower  part  of  the 
groove  which  was  cut  beneath  to  receive  it ; and  he  found 
by  this  circumstance  that  the  large  slab  before  him  was 
nothing  more  than  a barrier  of  granite,  one  foot  three  inches 
thick.  Having  observed  a small  aperture  at  the  top,  he 
thrust  a straw  into  it  upwards  of  three  feet, — a discovery 
which  convinced  him  that  there  was  a vacuum  prepared  to 
receive  the  portcullis.  The  raising  of  it,  indeed,  was  a 
work  of  no  small  difficulty.  As  soon,  however,  as  it  was 
elevated  high  enough  for  a man  to  pass,  an  Arab  entered 
with  a candle, -and  announced  that  the  place  within  was 
very  fine.  A little  more  room  enabled  our  adventurer  to 
Squeeze  his  person  through,  when  he  exclaims, — “ After 
thirty  days'  I had  the  pleasure  of  finding  myself  in  the  way 
to  the  central  chamber  of  one  of  the  two  great  Pyramids  of 
Egypt,  which  have  long  been  the  admiration  of  beholders.”* 

As  his  main  object  was  to  reach  the  centre  of  the  build- 
ing, he  advanced  in  that  direction,  along  a passage  cut  out 
of  the  solid  rock,  six  feet  in  height,  and  six  feet  six  inches 
broad.  At  length  he  reached  a door  at  the  centre  of  a large 
chamber.  “ I walked  slowly  two  or  three  paces,  and  then 
stood  still  to  contemplate  the  place  where  I was.  What- 
ever it  might  be,  I certainly-  considered  myself  in  the  centre 
of  that  Pyramid  which,  from  time  immemorial,  had  been  the 
subject  of  the  obscure  cpnjectures  of  many  hundred  travel- 
lers, both  ancient  and  modern.  My  torch,  formed  of  a few 
wax  candles,  gave  but  a faint  light : I could,  however, 
clearly  distinguish  the  principal  objects.  I naturally  turned 
my  eyes  to  the  west  end  of  the  chamber,  looking  for  the 

* Researches  and  Operations  in  Egypt  and  Nubia,  vol.  i.  p.  417. 


108 


mechanical  labours  of 


sarcophagus,  which  I strongly  expected  to  see  in  the  same 
situation  as  that  in  the  first  Pyramid  ; but  I was  disappointed 
when  I saw  nothing  there.  The  chamber  has  a pointed  or 
sloping  ceiling,  and  many  of  the  stones  had  been  removed 
from  their  places  evidently  by  some  one  in  search  of  treasure. 
On  my  advancing  towards  the  west  end,  I was  agreeably 
surprised  to  find  that  there  was  a sarcophagus  buried  on  a 
level  with  the  floor.” 

Upon  examining  more  minutely  the  chamber  into  which 
he  had  entered,  he  found  it  to  be  forty-six  feet  in  length, 
sixteen  feet  three  inches  wide,  and  twenty-three  feet  six 
inches  high.  It  is  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock  from  the  floor 
to  the  roof,  which  last  is  composed  of  large  slabs  of  calca- 
reous stone,  meeting  in  the  centre  at  an  angle  correspond- 
ing to  that  of  the  Pyramid  itself.  The  sarcophagus  is 
eight  feet  long,  three  feet  six  inches  wide,  and  two  feet  three 
inches  deep  in  the  inside.  It  is  surrounded  by  large  blocks 
of  granite,  apparently  to  prevent  its  removal,  which  could 
not  be  effected  without  great  labour.  The  lid  had  been 
drawn  to  one  side  ; so  that  the  receptacle,  be  it  fount  or 
grave,  was  half  open.  It  is  manufactured  of. the  very  finest 
granite  ; but,  like  the  other  in  the  Pyramid  of  Cheops,  it 
presents  not  a single  hieroglyphic.  Inspecting  the  inside 
solely  with  the  view  of  finding  some  inscription  which  would 
throw  light  on  the  history  and  intention  of  this  mighty 
edifice,  be  did  not  at  first  observe  that  there  were  bones 
mixed  with  the  sand  and  gravel  which  it  contained.  These 
fragments  of  an  animal  body,  being  afterward  sent  to  Lon- 
don, were  ascertained  to  belong  to  the  bovine  species,  and 
have  been  very  generally  supposed  to  be  the  remains  of  a 
sacred  bull, — an  object  of  veneration  among  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  On  the  sides  of  the  chamber,  which  were 
carefully  examined,  Mr.  Belzoni  observed  many  scrawls 
executed  with  charcoal ; all  of  which,  however,  were  in  a 
character  quite  unknown  to  him,  and  already  become  so 
faint  that  they  were  in  some  places  nearly  illegible,  and 
rubbed  off  on  the  slightest  touch. 

On  the  wall  at  the  west  end  of  the  chamber  he  perceived 
an  inscription,  which  has  been  translated  as  follows  : — 

“ The  Master  Mohammed  Ahmed,  lapicide,  has  opened 
them  ; and  the  Master  Othman  attended  this  (opening),  and 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS.  107 

the  King  Ali  Mohammed,  from  the  beginning  to  the  closing 
up.”* 

Mr.  Belzoni  admits  that  the  letters  were  far  from  being 
distinct.  The  transcriber  was  a Copt,  whom  he  induced  to 
go  from  Cairo  for  the  purpose,  not  having  sufficient  confi- 
dence in  his  own  pen.  He  adds,  however,  that  not  being 
satisfied  with  his  protestations  of  accuracy,  though  the 
inscription  was  copied  under  his  own  eyes,  he  invited  other 
persons,  who  were  esteemed  the  best  Arabic  scholars  in  the 
country,  to  lend  their  aid,  and  particularly  to  compare  the 
transcript  with  the  original  on  the  wall.  They  found  it  all 
perfectly  correct  and  intelligible,  except  the  concluding 
word,  which  was  acknowledged  to  be  obscure  ; but,  says  he, 
if  it  be  considered  how  much  that  word  resembles  the  right 
one,  we  shall  find  a good  sense,  and  the  whole  inscription 
made  out.  The  circumstance,  too,  supposed  to  be  here 
recorded, — that  the  Pyramid  was  closed  up  after  having 
been  opened  by  the  agents  of  King  Ali  Mohammed, — cor- 
responds exactly  to  the  facts  of  the  case,  and  affords  a strong 
corroboration  of  the  conjectural  emendation  proposed  by  the 
translator. 

It  is  repiarkable  that  in  this  Pyramid,  as  well  as  in  the 
larger  one,  there  is  a pit  or  shaft  which  descends  to  a lower 
part  of  the  building.  At  the  bottom  of  this  opening  there 
were  so  many  stones  as  nearly  to  choke  up  its  entrance ; 
but,  after  removing  these,  Mr.  Belzoni  found  the  passage 
running  towards  the  north,  as  formerly,  at  an  angle  of 
twenty-six  degrees.  It  continued  in  this  direction,  and  with 
the  same  slope  downwards,  forty-eight  feet  and  a half,  where 
it  joined  a horizontal  passage  fifty-five  feet  in  length,  still 
running  north.  Half-way  up  this  avenue  on  the  right  is  a 
recess  eleven  feet  long  and  six  deep.  On  the  left,  opposite 
to  it,  is  another  entry  twenty-two  feet  in  length,  with  a 
descent  of  twenty-six  degrees  towards  the  west.  Before  he 
proceeded  any  farther  northwards,  he  went  down  this  pas- 
sage, where  he  found  a chamber  thirty-two  feet  long,  nine 
feet  nine  inches  wide,  and  eight  feet  six  inches  in  height. 
This  apartment  contains  many  small  blocks  of  stone,  some 

* This  is  the  version  of  Mr.  Sfflame,  who  says,  “ The  Arabic  to  which 
T gave  the  meaning  of  these  last  words  * to  the  closing  up’  is  not  spelled 
correctly  in  the  paper  I saw, — a fault  which  I attribute  to  the  transcribe^ 
from  the  stone.” 


108 


MECHAXICAL  LABOURS  OF 


not  more  than  two  feet  in  length.  It  has  a pointed  roof 
like  that  before  mentioned,  though  it  is  cut  out  of  the  solid 
rock.  On  the  walls  and  ceiling  are  some  unknown  inscrip- 
tions similar  to  those  in  the  upper  chamber. 

Reascending  to  the  horizontal  passage,  he  discovered  at 
the  end  of  it  a portcullis,  which  must  have  originally  pos- 
sessed the  same  construction  as  the  one  already  described ; 
but  the  plate  of  granite  which  had  served  as  a adoor  was 
taken  down,  and  is  still  to  be  seen  under  the  rubbish  which 
encumbers  the  approach.  Beyond  this  point  he  entered  into 
a lane  which  runs  forty-eight  feet  in  a direction  parallel  to 
the  one  above,  and,  in  fact,  appears  to  issue  from  the  Pyra- 
mid near  its  base.  If  this  supposition  be  well  founded,  it 
will  follow  that  the  monument  of  Cephrenes  has  two 
entrances, — an  inference,  we  presume,  which  might  be 
extended  to  that  of  Cheops,  wrhere  there  are  several  pas- 
sages without  any  outlet  hitherto  discovered.  The  immense 
mass  of  broken  stones  and  sand  which  surrounds  the  foun- 
dation of  the  larger  edifice  has  all  along  prevented  such  a 
minute  examination  of  its  lower  parts  as  might  have  enabled 
the  scientific  antiquary  to  connect  the  internal  structure 
with  the  general  plan  and  uses  of  the  building.  Hence  it 
is  extremely  probable  that  apertures  will  be  found  in  all  the 
four  sides  conducting  to  the  centre,  at  different  angles  of 
inclination,  and  establishing  a communication  among  the 
various  chambers  which  the  Pyramids  contain. 

After  these  details,  it  is  impossible  to  refrain  from  an 
expression  of  admiration  so  justly  due  to  the  perseverance 
and  ability  of  Mr.  Belzoni.  It  was  truly  observed  by  Mr. 
Salt,  that  the  opening  of  this  Pyramid  had  long  been  con- 
sidered an  object  of  so  hopeless  a nature  that  it  is  difficult 
to  conceive  how  any  person  could  be  found  sanguine  enough 
to  make  the  attempt ; and,  even  after  the  laborious  discovery 
of  the  forced  entrance,  it  required  great  resolution  and  confi- 
dence in  his  own  views  to  induce  him  to  continue  the  opera- 
tion, when  it  became  evident  that  the  enterprise  of  his 
predecessors,  possessed  of  greater  means,  had  completely 
failed.  Of  the  discovery  itself  Belzoni  has  given  a very 
dear  description,  and  his  drawings  present  a perfect  idea 
of  the  entrances,  passages,  and  chambers.  Of  the  labour 
of  the  undertaking  no  one  can  form  an  idea.  Notwith- 
standing the  masses  of  stone  which  he  had  to  remove5  and 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


109 


the  hardness  of  the  materials  which  impeded  his  progress, 
the  whoie  was  effected  entirely  at  his  own  risk  and  expense.* 
It  is  manifest,  from  the  inscription  discovered  by  Belzoni, 
as  well  as  from  the  state  of  the  chambers  in  the  two  larger 
Pyramids,  that  they  had  both  been  opened  at  the  distance 
of  many  years.  Dr.  Shaw,  on  the  authority  of  an  Arabian 
author,  mentions  that  the  one  attributed  to  Cheops  was  en- 
tered about  ten  centuries  ago  by  Almamon,  the  renowned 
caliph  of  Babylon.  It  is  added  that  the  explorers  found  in 
it,  towards  the  top,  a chamber  with  a hollow  stone,  in  which 
there  was  a statue  like  a man,  and  within  it  the  body  of  a 
man,  upon  which  was  a breastplate  of  gold  set  with  jewels. 
Upon  this  breastplate  there  was  a sword  of  inestimable 
price  ; and  at  its  head  a carbuncle  of  the  bigness  of  an  egg, 
shining  like  the  light  of  the  day ; and  upon  the  human 
figure  were  characters  written  with  a pen,  which  no  man 
understood,  f 

* What  must  be  the  feelings  of  every  candid  person  who  reads  the  fob 
lowing  statement,  which  we  give  in  the  words  of  the  discoverer  himself: — 

“ One  thing  more  I must  observe  respecting  the  Count  de  Forbin.  On 
his  return  from  Thebes  I met  him  at  Cairo,  in  the  house  of  the  Austrian 
consul.  I had  begun  the  task  of  opening  the  Pyramids,  and  had  already 
discovered  the  false  passage.  The  count  requested,  in  a sort  of  sarcastic 
manner,  when  I had  succeeded  in  opening  the  Pyramid,  which  no  doubt 
he  supposed  I never  would,  that  I would  send  him  the  plan  of  it,  as  he 
was  about  setting  off  for  Alexandria  the  next  day,  and  thence  to  France. 

I thought  the  best  retaliation  I could  make  was  to  send  him  the  de- 
sired plan,  and  I did  so  as  soon  as  I opened  the  Pyramid,  which  was  in 
a few  days  after  his  departure.  Would  any  one  believe  that  the  noble 
count,  on  his  arrival  in  France,  gave  out  that  he  had  succeeded  in  pene- 
trating the  second  Pyramid  of  Djizeh,  and  brought  the  plan  of  it  to 
Paris  ? Whether  this  be  the  fact  or  not  will  appear  from  the  following 
paragraph  taken  from  a French  paper  now  in  my  possession ; — ‘ On  the 
24th  of  April,  Monsieur  le  Compte  de  Forbin,  director-general  of  the 
Royal  Museum  of  France,  landed  at  the  lazaretto  of  Marseilles.  He 
came  last  from  Alexandria,  and  his  passage  was  very  stormy.  He  has 
visited  Greece,  Syria,  and  Upper  Egypt.  By  a happy  chance,  some  days 
before  his  departure  from  Cairo,  he  succeeded  in  penetrating  into  the 
second  Pyramid  of  Djizeh.  Monsieur  Forbin  brings  the  plan  of  this 
important  discovery,  as  well  as  much  information  on  the  labours  of  M. 
Drovetti  at  Karnac,  and  on  those  which  Mr.  Salt,  the  English  consul, 
pursues  with  the  greatest  success  in  the  valley  of  Beban-el-Malook,  and 
in  the  plain  of  Medinet  Abou.  The  Museum  of  Paris  is  going  to  be  en- 
riched with  some  of  the  spoils  of  Thebes,  which  Monsieur  Forbin  has 
collected  in  his  travels.’ 

Was  this  written,”  exclaims  Belzoni,  “ by  some  person  in  France,  In 
ridicule  of  the  Count  de  Forbin,  or  is  it  an  attempt  to  impose  on  the 
public  by  a tissue  of  falsehoods  Vol.  i.  p.  393. 
t Shaw’s  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  207,  and  Pyramidographia  by  Mr.  Greaves, 

K 


11U 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 


It  is  in  like  manner  recorded  by  Abdollatiph  that  wlieiT 
Melec-Alaziz-Othman-ben-Yousouf  succeeded  his  father,  he‘ 
allowed  himself  to  be  persuaded  by  some  foolish  courtiers 
to  throw  down  the  Pyramids,  and  that  he  sent  thither  sap- 
pers, miners,  and  quarriers,  under  the  direction  of  proper 
officers,  with  orders  to  overturn  the  red  one,  that,  namely, 
ascribed  to  Mycerinus,  and  which  is  known  to  have  been 
coated  with  highly-coloured  granite.  To  execute  the  in- 
structions with  which  they  were  charged,  they  encamped 
on  the  adjoining  ground,  and  collected  a great  number  of 
labourers,  whom  they  maintained  at  an  enormous  expanse. 
There  they  remained  eight  whole  months,  exerting  them- 
selves to  the  utmost  in  order  to  fulfil  their  commission  ; but 
their  most  strenuous  endeavours  with  picks  and  levers  above, 
and  with  ropes  and  cables  below,  could  not  remove  more 
than  one  or  two  stones  a-day.  When  a block  was  thrown 
down,  there  was  the  additional  labour  of  breaking  it  into 
fragments  and  carrying  it  aside  ; and  one  of  the  engineers 
is  reported  to  have  said,  that,  although  he  were  to  get  ten 
thousand  pieces  of  gold,  he  could  not  readjust  one  of  these 
stones  in  its  proper  place.  At  length  they  abandoned  the 
attempt,  without  demolishing  the  magnificent  structure,  or 
even,  as  the  historian  thinks,  without  materially  reducing 
its  dimensions.  The  date  of  this  barbarous  project  is 
usually  placed  about  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century. 

Several  other  ealiphs.  are  named  by  Makrisi  and  Abdol- 
latiph as  having  meditated  the  demolition  of  these  great 
works.  Saladin,  for  example,  charged  his  emir,  Kara- 
lcoush  Asadi,  to  build  the  citadel  and  walls  of  Cairo, — 
instructing  him,  at  the  same  time,  to  consider  Memphis  and 
the  Pyramids  as  the  most  suitable  quarry  for  obtaining  ma- 
terials. Hence,  it  is  conjectured,  the  coating  of  the  large 
edifice  of  Cheops,  two-thirds  of  that  of  Cephrenes,  and  the 
greater  part  of  some  of  the  smaller  ones,  have  been  carried 
away,  and  can  now  only  be  sought  for  in  the  immense 
causeway,  and  the  innumerable  arches  which  he  constructed 
between  these  monuments  and  the  Nile,  or  in  the  citadel, 
the  mosques,  and  the  battlements  of  the  capital.  The  re- 
mains of  this  causeway  are  still  to  be  seen  ; the  finer  por- 
tion of  it,  however,  that  was  upon  the  lower  ground,  has 
been  swept  away  by  the  overflowing  of  the  Nile.  Some 
authors  have  supposed  it  to  be  the  relics  of  the  great  road 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


Ill 


described  by  Herodotus,  used  for  transporting  the  stones 
consumed  in  the  construction  of  the  Pyramids.  But  we 
are  informed  that  a very  slight  inspection  of  the  material, 
as  well  as  of  the  style  in  which  the  building  has  been  com- 
pleted, will  satisfy  every  one  qualified  to  judge  that  this 
opinion  is  not  founded  in  truth.  Abdollatiph,  in  fact,  a 
contemporary  writer,  states,  in  the  plainest  terms,  that  it 
was  constructed  by  Asadi,  one  of  the  emirs  of  Salah-Eddin- 
Yousouf,  the  son  of  Job,  commonly  called  Saladin  the 
Great.* 

The  opening  of  the  Great  Pyramid  has,  by  many  oriental 
writers,  been  ascribed  to  the  Caliph  Abdalla  M amour,  the 
son  of  Haroun  A1  Rascliid  ; and  they  state  that  he  em- 
ployed for  the  accomplishment  of  his  object,  fire,  vinegar, 
and  other  chymical  solvents.  Others  attribute  this  achieve- 
ment to  the  Caliph  Mohdi,  whose  name  was  Mohammed. 
The  latter  is  not  improbably  the  sovereign  whose  reputation 
is  embalmed  in  the  inscription,  copied  by  the  direction  of 
Belzoni,  under  the  title  of  King  Ali  Mohammed ; and  as  it 
is  recorded  that  he  attended  the  opening  of  them , — in  the 
plural  number, — it  is  certainly  not  unreasonable  to  conclude 
that  it  was  he  who  first  penetrated  into  the  interior  of  both, 
and  who  is,  consequently,  chargeable  with  much  of  the 
unnecessary  dilapidation  which  accompanied  his  fruitless 
labours. 

Considering  the  immense  toil  as  w'ell  as  uncertainty 
which  attend  the  exploration  of  the  Pyramids,  we  cannot 
be  surprised  at  any  difference  of  opinion  that  may  happen 
to  prevail  in  regard  to  the  various  apertures,  passages,  and 
chambers  which  occupy  the  interior.  But  it  is  much  less 
easy  to  reconcile  the  mind  to  the  discrepancy  which  per- 
plexes almost  every  book  of  travels,  in  reference  to  the 
magnitude  of  the  buildings  themselves.  For  instance,  the 
following  table  exhibits  only  a small  portion  of  the  error 
which  applies  to  the  measurement,  or  estimated  bulk,  of 
these  famous  structures  ; and  yet  the  difference  is  so  great 
as  to  justify  the  suspicion  that  the  standard  used  by  the 
several  writers  could  not  be  the  same,  or  that  the  summit 

* Travels  along  the  Mediterranean  and  Parts  Adjacent.  By  Bobeit 
Richardson,  M.D. — Vol.  i.  p.  139. 


112  MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 

of  the  principal  structure  has  been  considerably  lowered 
since  the  days  of  Herodotus. 


ANCIENTS. 

Height  of  the 
Great  Pyramid. 
Feet. 

Length  of 
the  Side. 
Feet. 

800 

Strabo 

600 

600 

700 

Pliny 

708 

MODERNS. 

Le  Brun 

704 

Prosper  Alpinus 

625 

750 

Thevenot 

612 

Niebuhr 

440 

710 

Greaves  

648 

Davison 

French  Savans 

440(470  Eng.). 

704 

NUMBER  07  LAYERS  OR  STEPS. 

Greaves  . . 

207 

Maillet  • • • 

208 

Albert  Lewenstein 260 

Pococke  . . 

Belon 

Thevenot. 

208 

Davison  . . 

206 

Davison  not  only  numbered  the  layers,  but  gives  the 
height  of  every  one  of  them  separately,  from  the  bottom  to 
the  top.  Grobert,  a member  of  the  French  Academy, 
appears  to  have  proceeded  in  a similar  manner,  counting  the 
steps  individually,  and  measuring  their  thickness.  But  it 
is  obvious,  that  if  they  did  not  make  an  allowance  in  every 
instance  for  any  deviation  of  the  surface  of  the  step  from 
the  plane  of  the  horizon,  the  result  would  not  coincide  with 
the  actual  height  of  the  Pyramid.  As  an  approximation, 
however,  we  may  assume  that  the  structure  in  question  is 
four  hundred  and  eighty  feet  high,  on  a base  of  seven  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  in  length ; or,  in  other  words,  covering 
an  area  of  about  eleven  acres,  and  rising  to  an  elevation  of 
127  feet  above  the  cross  of  St.  Paul’s  cathedral. 

Mr.  Belzoni^whose  solitary  exertions  accomplished  more 
than  the  united  band  of  philosophers  attached  to  the  French 
army,  ascertained  the  dimensions  of  the  second  Pyramid 
to  be  as  follows  : — 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


113 


The  Base 


Perpendicular  height 

Coating  from  the  top  to  the  place 


Ftet. 

.084 

.456 


where  it  ends 


| 140 


Before  we  leave  these  memorable  relics  of  ancient  gran- 
deur, we  must  revert  to  a circumstance  which  is  too  remark? 
able  to  be  passed  over.  In  all  the  pyramids  that  have  been 
opened,  which  at  Djizeh  and  Sakhara  amount  at  least  to 
six,  the  entrance  has  always  been  found  near  the  centre  on 
the  northern  face,  and  the  passage  as  uniformly  proceeding 
downwards  from  it,  at  an  angle  which  never  varies. 
Greaves  makes  the  inclination  in  that  of  Cheops  to  be 
26°,  while  Caviglia  has  determined  it  at  27°  ; which  last 
we  have  observed  to  be  common  to  all  the  sloping  passages 
in  the  edifice  just  specified.  He  found  the  same  angle  on 
opening  one  of  the  small  pyramids  towards  the  south,  at 
the  end  of  the  passage  of  which  were  two  chambers,  leading 
one  out  of  the  other,  and  both  empty.  The  same  conclusion 
was  formed  by  Belzoni  in  regard  to  the  Pyramid  of  Ce- 
phrenes.  The  angle  in  all  the  sloping  channels  was  26°. 
With  much  apparent  reason,  therefore,  has  it  been  con- 
jectured that  this  coincidence  could  not  be  accidental.  It 
must  have  been  the  work  of  design,  executed  for  some  spe- 
cial purpose  ; and  nothing  more  readily  presents  itself  to 
the  mind,  as  an  object  worthy  of  so  much  care,  than  the 
uses  of  astronomy,  to  which  the  priests  of  ancient  Egypt 
are  known  to  have  been  greatly  addicted. 

Pauw  suggested  that  the  pyramids,  as  well  as  the  obe- 
lisks, were  temples  raised  to  the  god  of  day,  because  one 
of  their  sides  is  in  all  cases  turned  to  the  east.  If,  then, 
nothing  more  were  apparent  than  the  exact  position  of  these 
buildings  in  reference  to  the  four  cardinal  points  of  the 
compass,  it  would  of  itself  be  sufficient  to  stamp  the  char- 
acter of  the  Egyptians  at  a very  remote  age  as  at  least 
practical  astronomers.  But  when  to  this  are  added  the 
delineation  of  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac,  the  traces  of 
which  are  still  visible  at  Esneh  and  Dendera,  the  naming 
of  the  principal  stars,  and  the  grouping  of  the  constellations, 
there  can  remain  no  doubt  that  the  science  of  the  priesthood 
was  chiefly  employed  in  marking  the  times  and  paths  of  the 
celestial  host.  When,  too,  we  find  that  all  the  learning  of 


K2 


114 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 


Thales,  by  which  he  was  enabled  to  calculate  eclipses,  and 
determine  the  solstitial  and  equinoctial  points,  was  acquired 
from  the  Egyptian  clergy  six  hundred  years  before  the 
Christian  era  ; that  at  a later  period  Eratosthenes  was  found 
qualified  to  measure  a degree  of  the  meridian,  and  from  the 
result  to  deduce  the  circumference  of  the  earth  to  an  extra- 
ordinary degree  of  accuracy  ; and  that  the  day  of  the  sum- 
mer solstice  was  then,  and  probably  at  a much  earlier  epoch, 
so  nicely  observed  by  means  of  a well  dug  at  Syene,  from 
the  surface  of  which  the  sun’s  disk  was  reflected  entire, — 
we  cannot  hesitate  to  receive  any  hypothesis  which  assumes 
an  astronomical  purpose,  in  accounting  for  the  architectural 
prodigies  of  ancient  Egypt. 

It  is  indeed  quite  consistent  to  suppose  that  the  priests, 
in  the  construction  of  these  stupendous  monuments,  would 
avail  themselves  of  the  means  thus  offered  of  connecting 
their  sacred  duties  with  their  favourite  study,  and  of  com- 
bining the  sentiments  of  piety  with  the  sublime  conceptions 
of  astronomy.  Among  other  benefits  which  this  union  has 
conferred  upon  posterity  is  that  of  having  fixed  with  pre- 
cision the  faces  of  the  Pyramids,  from  which,  as  Pauw  has 
observed,  “ we  know  that  the  poles  of  the  earth  have  not 
changed.”  But  there  is  reason  to  think  that  the  Pyramids 
were  made  subservient  to  a more  immediate  and  important 
use  in  the  science  of  astronomy,  namely,  to  correct  the 
measurement  of  time.  This  object,  it  may  be  conceived, 
was  in  contemplation  when  the  main  passages  leading  from 
the  northern  sides  were  formed.  These  approaches,  as  we 
have  repeatedly  remarked,  are  invariably  inclined  down- 
wards, in  an  angle  of  about  27°,  with  the  plane  of  the  hori- 
zon, which  gives  a line  of  direction  not  far  removed  from 
that  point  in  the  heavens  where  the  polar  star  now  crosses 
the  meridian  below  the  Pole.  The  observation  of  this,  or 
some  other  star,  across  the  meridian,  would  give  them  an 
accurate  measure  of  sideral  time,- — a point  of  the  first 
importance  in  an  age  when,  it  is  probable,  no  other 
instruments  than  rude  solar  gnomons,  or  expedients  still 
more  imperfect,  were  in  use.  Indeed  it  would  not  be  easy 
to  devise  a method  more  effectual  for  observing  the  transit 
•of  a star  with  the  naked  eye,  than  that  of  watching  its  pas- 
sage across  the  mouth  of  such  a lengthened  tube  ; and  it  is 
manifest  that  some  one  of  these  luminaries,  when  in  the 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


115 


meridian  below  the  Pole,  must  have  been  seen  in  the  line 
of  a passage  inclined  at  an  angle  of  twenty-six  or  twenty- 
seven  degrees. 

These  remarks  were  suggested  by  an  incidental  notice 
in  the  short  memorandum  of  the  measurements  made  by 
Mr.  Caviglia  : — “ One  no  longer  sees  the  pole-star  at  the 
spot  where  the  main  passage  ceases  to  continue  in  the 
same  inclination,  and  where  one  begins  to  mount.”  From 
this  expression  it  is  naturally  concluded  that  he  must  have 
seen  the  pole-star  when  at  the  bottom  of  the  main  passage  ; 
and,  if  so,  we  have  not  yet  got  the  true  measure  of  the 
angle  which  these  passages  form  with  the  horizon.  This 
would  be  very  desirable,  as  it  could  not  fail  to  lead  to  most 
important  results  ; especially  if  it  should  be  found  that  the 
difference  of  the  angles  in  the  approaches  of  the  Pyramids 
of  Djizeh,  Sakhara,  and  Dashour  correspond  to  the  differ- 
ence of  the  latitude  of  these  several  places.  We  might 
then  be  almost  certain  that  they  were  intended  for  the  pur- 
pose of  observing  the  passage,  over  the  meridian,  of  some 
particular  star,  whose  altitude,  when  below  the  Pole,  was 
equal  to  the  angle  of  the  passage.  If  this  suggestion 
should  be  well  founded,  it  would  not  be  difficult,  by  calcu- 
lation, to  determine  which  of  the  stars  within  the  Arctic 
circle  might  be  seen  to  pass  across  the  mouths  of  the  shafts 
about  the  supposed  time  of  building  the  Pyramids,  and 
thereby  to  fix,  with  more  precision  than  has  been  hitherto 
attained,  the  period  at  which  these  stupendous  structures 
were  erected.* 

Dr.  Richardson  is  disposed  to  call  in  question  the  sound- 
ness of  this  hypothesis, — observing  that  the  supposition  of 
the  passage  being  intended  as  “ an  astronomical  instrument 
for  measuring  sideral  time  is  scarcely  tenable.  Pyramids 
are  prodigiously  expensive  and  unmanageable  machines ; 
and  the  passage,  being  so  carefully  sealed  at  the  entrance, 
precluded  all  possibility  of  using  them  as  such.”f  But,  in 
reply  to  this  rather  hasty  stricture,  it  may  be  sufficient  to 
remark  that  no  one  has  ever  maintained  they  were  meant 
solely  for  astronomical  uses.  The  constant  occurrence  of 

* Quarterly  Review,  vol.  xix.  p.  40G ; Greave’s  Pyramidographia; 
Belzoni’s  Researches,  vol.  i.  p.  416. 

* Travels  along  the  Mediterranean,  vol.  i.  p.  133- 


116 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 


a fact,  however,  so  little  likely  to  be  accidental  could  hardly 
fail  to  suggest  that  it  must  have  been  intended  to  serve 
some  purpose  ; and  we  therefore  agree  with  the  ingenious 
writer  who  first  advanced  the  hypothesis,  in  ascribing  the 
•uniform  inclination  of  the  passages  in  the  two  large  Pyra- 
mids to  some  object  quite  unconnected  with  the  mere 
facility  of  descent. 

Having  occupied  so  much  space  with  this  description  of 
the  monuments  of  Djizeh,  we  must  rest  satisfied  with  a 
mere  reference  to  those  of  Abousir,  Sakhara,  and  Dashour. 
Every  one  knows  that,  in  point  of  magnitude,  these  are 
much  inferior  to  the  former,  though  still  entitled  to  rank 
very  high  as  the  remains  of  a great  people,  whose  glory 
unfortunately  is  now  almost  entirely  reflected  from  the 
ruins  of  their  ancient  works.  It  is  deserving  of  notice,  at 
the  same  time,  that  these  smaller  pyramids  are  generally 
coated  with  a material  different  from  the  body  of  the  edifice  ; 
and,  moreover,  that,  so  far  as  they  have  been  inspected,  in 
their  structure  and  internal  distribution  they  bear  a strik- 
ing resemblance  to  the  more  stupendous  erections  at  Djizeh, 

Our  account  of  the  mechanical  productions  of  ancient 
Egypt  would  be  incomplete  did  we  not  mention  the  great 
Sphinx,  which  has  always  been  regarded  as  an  accompani- 
ment, and  sometimes  even  as  a rival  to  the  Pyramids.  The 
latest  information  in  regard  to  this  stupendous  figure  was 
obtained  from  the  persevering  labours  of  Mr.  Caviglia, 
whose  name  has  been  already  mentioned  with  so  much 
honour.  After  the  most  fatiguing  and  anxious  endeavours, 
during  several  months,  he  succeeded  in  laying  open  the  whole 
statue  to  its  base,  and  exposing  a clear  area  extending  to  a 
hundred  feet  from  its  front.  It  is  not  easy,  says  Mr.  Salt, 
who  witnessed  the  process  of  excavation,  for  any  person 
unused  to  operations  of  this  kind,  to  form  the  smallest  idea 
of  the  difficulties  which  he  had  to  surmount,  more  espe- 
cially when  working  at  the  bottom  of  the  trench ; for,  in 
spite  of  every  precaution,  the  slightest  breath  of  wind,  or 
concussion,  set  all  the  surrounding  particles  of  sand  in  mo- 
tion, so  that  the  sloping  sides  began  to  crumble  away,  and 
mass  after  mass  to  come  tumbling  down,  till  the  whole  sur- 
face bore  no  unapt  resemblance  to  a cascade  of  water. 
Even  when  the  sides  appeared  most  firm,  if  the  labourers 
suspended  their  w ork  but  for  an  hour,  they  found  on  theijr 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


117 


return  that  they  had  the  greatest  part  of  it  to  do  over  again. 
This  was  particularly  the  case  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
paw,  where  the’ whole  of  the  people, — from  sixty  to  a hun- 
dred,— were  employed  for  seven  days  without  making  any 
sensible  advance,  the  sand  rolling  down  in  one  continued 
torrent. 

But  the  discovery  amply  rewarded  the  toil  and  expense 
which  were  incurred  in  revealing  the  structure  of  this  won- 
derful work  of  art.  The  huge  paws  stretched  out  fifty  feet 
in  advance  from  the  body,  which  is  in  a cumbent  posture  ; 
fragments  of  an  enormous  beard  were  found  resting  beneath 
the  chin  ; and  there  were  seen  all  the  appendages  of  a 
temple,  granite  tablet,  and  altar,  arranged  on  a regular 
platform  immediately  in  front.  On  this  pavement,  and  at 
an  equal  distance  between  the  paws  of  the  figure,  was  the 
large  slab  of  granite  just  mentioned,  being  not  less  than 
fourteen  feet  higlj,  seven  broad,  and  two  thick.  The  face 
of  this  stone,  Which  fronted  the  east,  was'  highly  embel- 
lished with  sculptures  in  bas-relief,  the  subject  representing 
two  sphinxes  seated  on  pedestals,  and  priests  holding  out 
offerings,  while  there  was  a long  inscription  in  hiero- 
glyphics most  beautifully  executed  ; the  whole  design  being 
covered  at  top,  and  protected,  as  it  were,  with  the  sacred 
globe,  the  serpent,  and  the  wings.  Two  other  tablets  of 
calcareous  stone,  similarly  ornamented,  were  supposed, 
together  with  that  of  granite,  to  have  constituted  part  of 
a miniature  temple,  by  being  placed  one  on  each  side  of  the 
latter,  and  at  right  angles  to  it.  One  of  them,  in  fact,  was 
still  remaining  in  its  place  ; of  the  other,  which  was  thrown 
down  and  broken,  the  fragments  are  now  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum. A small  lion,  couching  in  front  of  this  edifice,  had 
its  eyes  directed  towards  the  Sphinx.  There  were,  besides, 
several  fragments  of  other  lions  rudely  carved,  and  the  fore- 
part of  a sphinx  of  tolerable  workmanship  ; all  of  which, 
as  well  as  the  tablets,  walls,  and  platforms  on  which  the 
little  temple  stood,  were  ornamented  with  red  paint, — a 
colour  which  would  seem  to  have  been,  in  Egypt  as  well 
as  in  India,  appropriated  to  sacred  purposes.  In  front  of 
the  temple  was  a granitic  altar,  with  one  of  the  four  pro- 
jections or  horns  still  retaining  its  place  at  the  angle. 
From  the  effects  of  fire  evident  on  the  stone,  this  altar,  it  is 
manifest,  had  been  used  for  burnt-offerings.  On  the  side 


118 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 


of  the  left  paw  of  the  great  Sphinx  were  cut  several  indis- 
tinct legends  in  Greek  characters,  addressed  to  different 
deities.  On  the  second  digit  of  the  same  was  sculptured, 
in  pretty  deep  letters,  an  inscription  in  verse  ; of  which  the 
subjoined  translation  was  given  by  the  late  Dr.  Young, 
whose  extensive  knowledge  of  antiquities  enabled  him  at 
once  to  restore  the  defects  of  the  original,  and  to  convey  its 
meaning  in  Latin  as  well  as  in  English.* 

On  the  digits  of  the  southern  paw  were  only  discovered 
a few  of  the  usual  dedicatory  phrases  in  honour  of  Harpo- 
crates,  Mars,  and  Hermes.  One  inscription  gives,  as  Mr. 
Salt  reads  it,  to  the  Emperor  Claudius  the  extraordinary 
appellation  of  the  “ good  spirit”  (dyados  <5at/xo>v), — an  in- 
stance of  flattery  which  can  only  be  outdone  by  that  of 
another  inscription  discovered  in  Upper  Egypt,  where  Cara- 
calla  is  styled  “ most  pious”  (jpiissimus ),  on  the  very  same 
stone  from  which  the  name  of  his  murdqyed  brother  Geta 
had  probably  been  erased  by  his  own  hand.  On  another 
small  edifice,  in  front  of  the  Sphinx,  was  a legend  with  the 
name  of.  Septimius  Severus,  in  which  that  of  Geta  was 

* 2ov  Senas  tKnay\ov  rzv\av  Seoi  diev  iovres 

Qeioancvoi  XVPVS  KvpiSa  na^onevr/s'  k.  t.  A. 

Tuum  corpus  stupendum  struxerunt  dii  sempiterni, 
Parcentes  terrae  triticum  pinsenti ; 

In  medium  erigentes  arvensis  tabulae 
Insulae  petrosae  arenam  detrudentes: 

Vicinam  pyramidibus  talem  se  posuerunt  visu. 

Non  CEdipodis  homicidam,  sicut  ad  Thebas, 

Sed  Deae  Latonae  famulam  purissimam 
Seduld  observantem  desideratum  bonum  regem, 

Terrae  Egyptiae  venerandum  ductorem, 

Caelestem  magnum  imperatorem  (diis  affinem) 

Similem  Vulcano,  magnanimum  (fortissimum) 

Validum  in  bello,  et  amabilem  inter  cives 
Terram  laetari  (omnigenis  epulis  jubentem). 

Thy  form  stupendous  here  the  gods  have  placed, 

Sparing  each  spot  of  harvest-bearing  land  ; 

And  with  this  mighty  work  of  art  have  graced 
A rocky  isle  encumbered  once  with  sand  : 

Not  that  fierce  Sphinx  that  Thebes  erewhile  laid  waste, 

But  great  Latona’s  servant,  mild  and  bland  : 

Watching  that  prince  beloved  who  fills  the  throne 
Of  Egypt’s  plains,  and  calls  the  Nile  his  own. 

That  heavenly  monarch  who  his  foes  defies : 

Like  Vulcan  powerful,  and  like  Pallas  wise. 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


119 


obliterated  as  in  the  former,  and  as  it  also  is  on  the  triumphal 
arch  erected  by  the  same  emperor  at  Rome.  The  former 
inscription,  however,  is  not  to  Claudius,  but  to  his  suc- 
cessor Nero,  as  may  be  distinctly  traced  in  the  first  line  as 
it  now  appears.* 

We  have  eritered  more  particularly  into  these  details  on 
account  of  an  error  into  which  Dr.  Clark  has  fallen  respect- 
ing the  share  of  merit  due  to  the  French  in  uncovering  the 
body  of  the  Sphinx.  He  states,  without  the  slightest  hesi- 
tation, that  the  academicians  who  followed  the  camp  of 
Buonaparte  laid  open  the  wffiole  pedestal  of  this  statue,  as 
well  as  the  cumbent  or  leonine  part  of  the  figure,  which 
were  before  entirely  concealed  by  the  sand  ; adding  that, 
instead  of  answering  the  expectations  raised  concerning  the 
work  upon  which  it  was  supposed  to  rest,  the.  pedestal 
proves  to  be  a wretched  substructure  of  brick-work  and 
small  fragments  of  stone,  put  together  like  the  most  insig- 
nificant piece  of  modern  masonry,  and  wholly  out  of  char- 
acter, both  with  respect  to  the  prodigious  labour  bestowred 
upon  the  statue  itself  and  the  gigantic  appearance  of  the 
surrounding  objects.  Now,  every  one  who  has  glanced 
into  the  splendid  publication,  to  the  contents  of  which  the 
several  philosophers  contributed  in  their  respective  depart- 
ments, knows  well  that  the  French  never  uncovered  more 
than  the  back  of  the  Sphinx, — that  they  never  pretended 
to  have  seen  the  pedestal, — and  that  there  is,  in  fact,  no 
brick-work  in  any  way  connected  with  that  celebrated  statue. 
M.  Denon  saw  nothing  but  the  head  and  neck;  and  M. 
Gobert,  who  was  constantly  stationed  at  the  Pyramids, 
says,  in  his  Memoir,  that  he  succeeded  in  laying  bare  the 
back  to  such  an  extent  as  was  sufficient  to  determine  the 
measurement ; affirming  that  the  figure  was  cut  out  of  a 
salient  angle  of  the  mountain,  and  is  accordingly  one  solid 
piece  of  rock.  It  is  true  that  the  paws,  which  are  thrown 
out  fifty  feet  in  front,  are  constructed  of  masonry  ; but  it  is 
neither  insignificant,  nor  in  the  least  degree  resembling 
modem  workmanship.  This,  however,  could  not  be  known 
either  to  the  French  or  to  Dr.  Clark.  Perhaps,  after  all, 

* For  the  above  account  of  Caviglia’s  discoveries,  as  he  himself  has 
not  published  any  thing,  the  reader  is  indebted  to  the  several  communi 
cations  forwarded  by  Mr.  Salt  from  Egypt  to  the  late  editor  of  the 
Quarterly  Review. 


120 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 


the  hint  has  been  taken  from  Pococke,  who  remarks,  in  re- 
gard to  the  body  oTthe  Sphinx,  that  what  some  have  taken  for 
joinings  of  the  stones,  are  nothing  more  than  veins  in  the 
rock.  Hence  the  suspicion  that  the  hands  of  the  builder 
were  employed  in  constructing  the  supposed  pedestal  or 
platform  on  which  the  statue  rests. 

We  may  remark  in  passing,  that  the  scientific  corps 
commissioned  by  Buonaparte  to  illustrate  the  history  and 
antiquities  of  Egypt  effected  almost  nothing  in.  either  de- 
partment. Compelled  to  follow  the  movements  of  the 
army,  which  was  at  no  time  in  undisturbed  possession  of 
the  country,  they  could  not  engage  in  those  tedious  opera- 
tions, which,  as  has  been  proved  by  the  experience  of  Bel- 
zoni  and  Caviglia,  were  absolutely  necessary  to  success  in 
any  attempt  to  analyze  the  structure  of  the  vast  edifices 
which  invite  the  curiosity  of  the  traveller.  It  is  not  denied 
that,  in  the  great  work  published  under  the  patronage  of 
the  French  government,  there  is  much  valuable  information 
connected  more  or  less  directly  with  the  ancient  state  of 
Egypt ; but  it  is  no  less  true,  that  nearly  all  the  disserta- 
tions which  occupy  its  splendid  volumes  might  have  been 
written  by  men  who  had  never  quitted  Paris,  nor  seen  any 
other  document  besides  those  which  are  supplied  by  the 
Greek  and  Roman  authors.  This  remark  applies,  in  the 
strictest  sense,  to  the  long  article  by  M.  Jomard  on  the 
Pyramids.  It  is  a mere  abridgment  of  the  descriptive  nar- 
rations left  by  Herodotus,  Diodorus,  Strabo,  Pliny,  Ammia- 
nus,  and  by  some  later  writers  of  the  Arabian  school.  In 
regard  to  the  Sphinx,  again,  we  subjoin  in  a note  the  sum 
of  all  the  intelligence  which  is  conveyed  to  the  readers  of 
Europe  by  the  renowned  philosophers  of  Napoleon  the 
Great.* 

We  know  not  whether  it  will  be  consolatory  to  the  reader 

* Son  41  Ovation,  d'environ  13  metres  au-dessus  du  sol  aetuel,  reste 
comme  temoin  et  comine  mesure  de  l’enldvement  des  pierres  qui  a ete 
fait  a la  superficie  pour  dresser  cette  partie  de  la  montagne.  La  croupe, 
& peine  sensible,  semble  settlement  tracee  sur  le  sol  dans  une  longueur 
de  pres  de  22  metres;  et  le  cdte  que  nous  avons  voulu  decouvrir,  en 
faisant  enlever  la  sable  que  les  vents  ont  accumule  jnsqu’au  niveau  de 
la  montagne,  ne  nous  a offert,  sur  une  profondeur  de  9 d 10  metres  en- 
viron, aucune  forme  regulidre  : quant  d l’excavaiion  qui  avait  dte  re- 
marquee  sur  la  tdte,  elle  n'est  profonde  que  de  2 metres  924  millimetres, 
d'une  forme  unique  et  irrdgulidre.— Description  del' Egypt,  vol.  ii.  p.  52, 
Antiquites. 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


121 


to  be  informed,  that  this  remarkable  statue  is  again  as  much 
under  the  dominion  of  the  desert  as  it  was  half  a century  ago ; 
and,  consequently,  that  it  now  meets  the  eye  of  the  Egyp- 
tian traveller  shrouded  in  sand  to  the  same  depth  as  before. 
Dr.  Richardson  relates  that  the  wind  and  the  Arabs  had  re- 
placed the  covering  on  this  venerable  piece  of  antiquity,  and 
hence  that  the  lower  parts  were  quite  invisible.  “ The 
breast,  shoulders,  and  neck,  which  are  those  of  a human  being, 
remain  uncovered,  as  also  the  back,  which  is  that  of  a lion  ; 
the  neck  is  very  much  eroded,  and,  to  a person  near,  the 
head  seems  as  if  it  were  too  heavy  for  its  support.  The 
headdress  has  the  appearance  of  an  old-fashioned  wig, 
projecting  out  about  the  ears,  like  the  hair  of  the  Berberi 
Arabs ; the  ears  project  considerably,  the  nose  is  broken, 
the  whole  face  has  been  painted  red,  which  is  the  colour 
assigned  to  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Egypt,  and  to  all  the 
deities  of  the  country  except  Osiris.  The  features  are 
Nubian,  or  what,  from  ancient  representations,  may  be 
called  ancient  Egyptian,  which  is  quite  different  from  the 
negro  feature.  The  expression  is  particularly  placid  and 
benign  ; so  much  so,  that  the  worshipper  of  the  Sphinx 
might  hold  up  his  god  as  superior  to  all  the  other  gods  of 
wood  and  stone  which  the  blinded  nations  worshipped.”* 

He  adds  that  there  is  no  opening  found  in  the  body  of  the 
Sphinx  whereby  to  ascertain  whether  it  is  hollow  or  not ; 
but  we  learn  from  Dr.  Pococke  that  there  is  an  entrance  both 
in  the  back  and  in  the  top  of  the  head,  the  latter  of  which, 
he  thinks,  might  serve  for  the  arts  of  the  priests  in  uttering 
oracles,  while  the  former  might  be  meant  for  descending  to 
the  apartments  beneath,  t 

As  to  the  dimensions  of  the  figure,  Pococke  found  the 
head  and  neck, — all  that  were  above  ground, — to  be  twenty- 
seven  feet  high  ; the  breast  was  thirty-three  feet  wide ; and 
the  entire  length  about  a hundred  and  thirty.  Pliny  esti- 
mated it  at  a hundred  and  thirteen  feet  long,  and  sixty- 
three  in  height.  According  to  Dr.  Richardson,  the  stretch 
of  the  back  is  about  a hundred  and  twenty  feet,  and  the 
elevation  of  the  head  above  the  sand  from  thirty  to  thirty- 
five, ^ — a result  which  accords  pretty  nearly  with  the  mea- 
surement of  Coutelle.  It  is  obvious,  at  the  same  time,  that 


* Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  152. 


f Vol.  i.  p.  46. 


122 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  Ot 


the  discrepancy  in  these  reports  as  to  the  elevation  of  the 
figure  must  be  attributed  to  the  varying  depth  of  the  sand, 
which  appears  to  have  accumulated  greatly  since  the  days 
of  the  Roman  naturalist.  The  Sphinx  was  entire  in  the 
time  of  Abdollatiph,  who  describes  its  graceful  appearance 
and  the  admirable  proportion  in  the  different  features  of  the 
countenance,  which  excited  his  astonishment  above  every 
thing  he  had  seen  in  Egypt.  Makrisi  states  that  it  was 
mutilated  by  the  Sheik  Mohammed,  who,  in  the  spirit  of  a 
true  Mussulman,  thought  himself  bound  to  destroy  all 
images,  and  every  thing  indeed  which  bore  the  slightest 
resemblance  to  a living  creature.  He  wras  called  the 
Faster, — an  expression  which  denoted  his  rigid  adherence 
to  the  rules  of  his  church ; while  his  attack  on  the  Sphinx, 
and  on  the  stone  lions  at  the  gates  of  Cairo,  established  his 
reputation  as  a furious  bigot. 

The  learned  have  indulged  in  the  utmost  latitude  of  con- 
jecture respecting  the  design  of  such  figures.  As  they  are 
all  found  placed  near  temples  and  consecrated  buildings,  it 
has  been  justly  inferred  that  their  emblematical  form  must 
have  had  some  relation  to  the  theological  opinions  or  re- 
ligious rites  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  According  to  some 
authors,  the  countenance  of  a beautiful  woman,  combined 
with  the  body  of  a lion  or  other  animal,  intimated  the  allur- 
ing aspect  with  which  vice  at  first  assails  the  unwary,  and 
the  besotted  monsters  which  she  makes  them  when  caught 
in  her  fangs.  Others,  again,  have  regarded  them  as  astro- 
nomical symbols,  marking  the  passage  of  the  sun  from  the 
sign  Leo  into  that  of  Virgo,  and  thereby  shadowing  forth 
the  happy  period  when  the  overflowing  of  the  Nile  diffuses 
the  blessings  of  health  and  plenty  throughout  the  whole 
land.  To  us  the  import  of  this  vast  hieroglyphic  appears 
somewhat  more  profound  and  mystical.  The  philosophers 
of  the  East,  wrho  accustomed  themselves  to  view  the  created 
universe  as  the  effect  of  a certain  mysterious  generation, 
naturally  regarded  the  First  Cause  as  combining  both  sexes, 
as  exercising,  in  a manner  entirely  incomprehensible  to  the 
human  intellect,  the  male  and  the  female  energies,  and 
thereby  becoming  the  parent  of  every  thing  that  exists.  It 
will,  accordingly,  be  found  that  to  the  Sphinx  are  ascribed 
attributes  which  do  not  belong  to  a man  or  to  a woman 
singly,  and  which  cannot  be  united  in  the  same  figure  with- 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


123 

out  representing  that  imaginary  hermaphrodite  which  the 
refined  speculation  of  the  orientals  has  enshrined  in  the 
darkest  recesses  of  their  mystic  theology.*  On  a subject, 
however,  so  far  removed  from  the  ordinary  path  of  investi- 
gation in  modern  times,  and  so  little  likely  either  to  instruct 
or  amuse,  it  may  be  sufficient  to  have  suggested  materials 
for  reflection  to  such  as  are  inclined  to  enter  at  greater 
length  upon  such  abstruse  inquiries. 

Connected  with  the  stupendous  undertakings  of  the 
Egyptian  architects,  there  is  an  occurrence  mentioned  by 
Herodotus,  to  which  we  shall  merely  direct  the  attention 
of  the  reader.  Alluding  to  a temple  erected  at  Sais  in 
honour  of  Minerva,  the  historian  observes  that  what,  in  his 
opinion,  was  most  of  all  to  be  admired,  was  a sanctuary 
brought  by  Amasis  from  Elephantine,  consisting  of  one 
entire  stone.  The  carriage  of  it  employed  two  thousand 
men,  all  sailors,  for  the  whole  period  of  three  years.  The 
length  of  this  edifice,  if  it  may  be  so  called,  was  twenty-one 
cubits,  the  width  fourteen,  and  the  height  eight.  It  was 
placed  at  the  entrance  of  the  temple ; and  the  reason  as- 
signed for  its  being  carried  no  farther  is,  that  the  architect, 
reflecting  upon  his  long  fatigue,  sighed  deeply,  and  thereby 
alarmed  the  superstition  of  the  king,  who  considered  it  as  a 
bad  omen.  Some,  however,  affirm,  that  one  of  the  men 
employed  in  working  a lever  was  crushed  to  death, — an 
event  which  discouraged  Amasis,  and  induced  him  to  desist 
from  his  enterprise.! 

We  know  that  the  practice  of  erecting  monolithic  tem- 
ples, or  sanctuaries  hollowed  out  in  a single  stone,  was  very 
general  in  Egypt ; some  striking  specimens  being  still  pre- 
served in  the  higher  parts  of  the  country.  But  we  question 
whether  the  power  of  modem  mechanics  could  remove  from 

* Les  Sphinx  des  Egyptiens  ont  les  deux  sexes,  c’est  A dire  qn’ils  sont 

ftmelles  par  devant,  ayant  une  tite  de  femme,— et  miles  derriire C’est 

une  remarque  que  personne  n’avait  encore  faite.  II  resulte,  de  l’inspec- 
tion  de  quelques  monumens,  que  les  artistes  Grecs  donnaient  aussi  des 
natures  composees  A ces  itres  mixtes,  et  qu’ils  faisaient  mime  des  sphinx 
barbus,  comme  le  preuve  un  bas-relief  en  terre  cuite  conserve  A la  Far- 
nesina.  Lorsque  Herodote  nomme  les  sphinx  des  androsphinges , il  a 
voulu  designer  par  cette  expression  la  dupliciti  de  leur  sexe.  Les  sphinx 
qui  sont  aux  quatre  faces  de  la  pointe  de  l’obilisque  du  soleil,  sont  re- 
marquables  par  leurs  mains  d’hommes  armies  d’ongles  crochus,  comme 
les  griffes  des  bites  firoces. — Winkelman. 

j Herpdotus,  lib.  ii.  c.  175. 


124 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  0? 


the  quarry,  and  convey  to  the  distance  of  four  hundred 
miles,  a mass  of  rock  thirty-two  feet  long,  twenty-one  broad, 
and  twelve  ' in  height.  It  is  only  in  a nation  where  the 
Pyramids  continue  to  bear  witness  to  the  astonishing  effects 
produced  by  labour  and  perseverance  that  such  things  must 
not  be  pronounced  incredible.  The  obelisks,  too,  some  of 
which  adorn  more  than  one  capital  city  in  Europe,  prove 
that  the  resources  of  the  Egyptian  engineer  are  not  to  be 
measured  by  the  progress  of  similar  arts,  at  the  same  period, 
in  any  part  of  Italy  or  Greece. 

But  our  limits  forbid  us  to  indulge  in  details.  We  hasten, 
therefore,  to  leave  the  vast  cemetery  which  surrounded  the 
ancient  Memphis,  and  of  which  the  Pyramids  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  principal  decorations,  by  noticing  the  re- 
searches of  Mr.  Salt  and  his  coadjutor  Caviglia,  in  the 
ruined  edifices  or  tombs  which  crowd  the  neighbourhood  of 
Djizeh.  Viewed  from  the  monument  of  Cheops,  they  ap- 
pear in  countless  multitudes,  scattered  without  order  among 
the  larger  buildings,  as  the  graves  in  a churchyard  round 
the  church,  and  extend  towards  the  north  and  south  along 
the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach. 
These  remains  of  antiquity  were  noticed  by  Pococke  and 
other  travellers,  but  were  not  till  lately  examined  with  the 
attention  which  they  appear  to  deserve.  They  are  de- 
scribed as  being  generally  of  an  oblong  form,  having  their 
walls  slightly  inclined  from  the  perpendicular  inwards,— 
the  peculiar  characteristic  of  ancient  Egyptian  architec- 
ture— flat  roofed,  with  a sort  of  parapet  round  the  outside 
formed  of  stones,  rounded  at  the  top,  and  rising  about  a 
foot  and  a half  above  the  level  of  the  terrace.  The  walls 
are  constructed  of  large  masses  of  rock  of  irregular  shape, 
seldom  rectangular,  though  neatly  fitted  to  each  other, 
somewhat  in  the  manner  of  the  Cyclopean  structures,  as  they 
are  called,  which  are  found  in  various  parts  of  Greece. 

The  first  of  these  mausoleums  examined  by  Mr.  Caviglia 
was  found  to  have  the  inside  walls  covered  with  stucco,  and 
embellished  with  rude  paintings,  one  of  which,  though  much 
defaced,  evidently  represented  the  sacred  boat,  while  another 
displayed  a procession  of  figures,  each  carrying  a lotus  in 
his  hand.  At  the  southern  extremity  were  several  mould- 
ering mummies  laid  one  over  the  other  in  a recumbent 
uosture.  Many  of  the  bones  remained  entire,  and  among 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


125 


the  rest  was  a scull  with  part  of  its  cloth  covering  inscribea 
with  hieroglyphics.  The  second  edifice  he  explored  had 
no  paintings,  but  contained  several  fragments  of  statues. 
In  one  of  the  chambers  were  found  two  pieces  of  marble 
composing  an  entire  figure,  almost  as  large  as  life,  in  the 
act  of  walking,  with  the  left  leg  stretched  forward,  and  the 
two  arms  hanging  down  and  resting  on  the  thighs.  F rom 
the  position  of  this  statue,  and  from  that  of  a pedestal  and 
the  foot  of  another  figure,  in  a different  chamber,  both  facing 
the  openings  into  the  respective  apartments,  Mr.  Salt  is  of 
opinion  that  they  were  so  placed  for  the  express  purpose 
of  being  seen  by  the  friends  of  the  deceased  from  an  ad- 
joining corridor ; the  statues  themselves  bearing,  as  he 
thinks,  evident  marks  of  being  intended  for  portraits  of  the 
persons  whom  they  were  meant  to  represent.  The  several 
parts  were  marked  with  a strict  attention  to  nature,  and 
coloured  after  life,  having  artificial  eyes  of  glass  or  trans- 
parent stones,  to  give  them  the  air  of  living  men.  A head 
was  discovered,  but  it  did  not  exactly  fit  the  statue  in  ques- 
tion, though  it  probably  belonged  to  the  foot  and  pedestal ; 
but  its  chief  value  consisted  in  its  similarity  in  style  and 
features  to  that  of  the  Sphinx,  having  the  same  facial  line, 
the  same  sweetness  of  expression  and  marking  in  the  mouth, 
and  the  same  roundness  and  peculiarity  which  characterize 
the  rest  of  the  countenance, — circumstances  which  tend  to 
prove  its  great  antiquity.  In  removing  the  fragments,  eight 
hours  were  employed  in  enlarging  the  opening  of  the  cham- 
ber to  enable  the  workmen  to  force  them  through ; whence 
it  is  evident  that  the  statue  must  have  been  placed  in  its  cell 
before  the  edifice  was  completely  finished.  The  same  obser- 
vation, indeed,  applies  to  the  Pyramids  ; the  sarcophagus, 
and  other  remains  of  art  contained  in  which,  must  have  been 
introduced  before  the  passages  were  lined  with  granite, 
the  space  being  now  too  contracted  to  admit  of  their  con- 
veyance in  a perfect  state.  We  are  informed  by  Mr.  Salt 
that  many  of  the  fragments  found  in  these  tombs,  composed 
of  alabaster  as  well  as  of  the  hardest  rock,  give  a much 
higher  idea  of  Egyptian  sculpture  than  has  usually  been 
entertained  ; the  utmost  attention  being  shown  by  the  artist 
to  the  anatomical  properties  of  the  human  figure,  to  the 
swell  of  the  muscles  and  the  knitting  of  the  joints. 

In  a third  of  these  stone  edifices  was  a boat  of  a large 

E2 


126 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS  OF 


size,  sculptured  with  a square  sail,  different  from  any  now 
employed  on  the  Nile.  In  the  first  chamber  of  this  building 
were  paintings,  in  bas-relief,  of  men,  deer,  and  birds, — the 
men  engaged  in  planning  and  preparing  certain  pieces  of 
furniture,  hewing  blocks  of  wood,  and  pressing  out  skins 
either  of  wine  or  oil.  The  top  of  the  second  chamber  is 
hollowed  out  in  the  form  of  an  arch.  In  this  apartment,  it 
is  added,  the  figures  and  hieroglyphics  are  exceedingly 
beautiful.  On  the  right  is  represented  a quarrel  between 
some  boatmen,  executed  with  great  spirit ; and,  a little 
farther  on,  a number  of  men  engaged  in  the  different  pur- 
suits of  agriculture, — ploughing,  hoeing  up  the  ground, 
bringing  in  their  com  on  asses,  and  storing  it  in  the  maga- 
zines. On  the  west  are  several  vases  painted  in  the  most 
vivid  colours  ; and  on  the  south  a band  of  musicians  playing 
on  the  harp,  flute,  and  a species  of  clarionet,  together  with 
a group  of  dancing  women,  tinged  of  a yellow  colour,  as  is 
the  case  in  most  of  the  temples  of  Upper  Egypt.  In  the 
same  structure  are  two  other  chambers,  one  unembellished, 
the  other  having  carved  on  its  walls  a variety  of  figures  and 
hieroglyphics.  In  a fifth  of  these  mortal  dwellings  were 
similar  inscriptions  on  a thick  coat  of  white  plaster,  exe- 
cuted, as  it  would  appear,  with  a wooden  stamp  or  mould. 

Many  others  of  thes.e  ancient  sepulchres  were  cleared 
out,  and  found  to  consist  of  a number  of  different  apartments, 
variously  disposed,  but  similarly  decorated  with  carvings 
and  paintings,  according,  perhaps,  to  the  wealth  or  caprice 
of  those  who  erected  them  ; one,  in  particular,  from  the  deli- 
cacy of  its  colours,  its  general  pleasing  aspect,  and  superior 
style  of  execution,  w*as  deemed  deserving  of  the  closest 
attention.  It  is  further  observed,  that,  in  all  of  them,  there 
were  discovered  fragments  of  bitumen,  great  quantities  of 
mummy-cloth  and  of  human  bones,  which  seemed  to  remove 
all  doubt  of  their  having  served-  the  purpose  of  entombing 
the  j3ead.  A very  important  circumstance  yet  remains  to 
be  noticed.  In  some  one  apartment  of  all  these  monumental 
edifices  was  a deep  shaft  or  well,  from  the  bottom  of  which 
a narrow  passage  conducted  to  a subterraneous  chamber. 
One  of  these  shafts,  cleared  out  by  Mr.  Caviglia,  was  sixty 
feet  deep,  and  in  the  room  a little  to  the  south  of  the  lower 
extremity  of  the  pit  was  standing,  without  a lid,  a plain  but 
highly-finished  sarcophagus,  of  the  same  dimensions  nearly 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


127 


as  that  in  the  Pyramid  of  Cheops,  though  still  more  exqui- 
sitely polished.  This  discovery  supplies  a strong  argument 
in  support  of  the  opinion  that  all  the  Pyramids  were  used  as 
sepulchres,  whatever  may  have  been  their  primary  and  more 
important  object. 

As  to  the  comparative  antiquity  of  the  mausoleums  just 
described,  Mr.  Salt  entertained  an  opinion  different  from 
that  of  most  writers  ; considering  the  ground  in  which  they 
stand  as  the  burial-place  of  the  kings  of  Egypt  prior  to  the 
construction  of  the  Pyramids,  and  as  having  been  connected 
with  Heliopolis  before  the  seat  of  government  was  trans- 
ferred to  Memphis.  The  more  general  belief,  however,  is, 
that  these  edifices  are  not  only  much  more  recent  than  the 
vast  structures  which  they  surround,  but  that  in  a majority 
of  cases  they  are  composed  of  tbe  coating  of  the  Pyramids, 
removed  from  their  surface  either  by  violence  or  by  the 
effects  of  time.  As  a confirmation  of  this  view,  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  walls  of  these  tombs  are  formed  of  the  same 
kind  of  stones  which  were  used  for  coating  the  more  ma- 
jestic monuments,  and  covered  with  hieroglyphics,  as  were 
also  the  casings  of  the  Pyramids  at  a remote  epoch.  On 
these  last  Abdollatiph  says  that  he  himself  saw  as  many 
inscriptions  as  would  fill  ten  thousand  volumes  ; and  other 
authors  have  recorded  the  same  fact  in  language  equally 
strong.  A circumstance  mentioned  by  Mr.  Salt  appears  to 
us  to  be  completely  decisive  of  the  question.  He  saw  a 
stone,  bearing  an  inscription  of  hieroglyphics  and  figures, 
built  into  one  of  the  walls  upside  down, — a fact  which 
proves  beyond  a doubt  that  it  had  constituted  a part  of 
some  other  structure  before  it  was  placed  in  its  present 
position.  It  is  probable,  too,  that  the  little  mounds  which 
diversify  the  surface  of  the  neighbouring  country  were  origi- 
nally buildings  of  the  same  description,  but  of  a still  higher 
antiquity  ; and  that  they  have  gradually  mouldered  down 
into  the  shape  they  now  exhibit,  under  the  pressure  of  age 
and  the  wasting  influence  of  the  elements. 

In  examining  the  interesting  district  which  includes 
Djizeh,  Abousir,  Sakhara,  and  Dashour,  and  which  may 
even  be  regarded  as  extending  to  the  borders  of  Lake  Moeris, 
the  contemplative  spirit  finds  itself  in  a great  city  of  the 
dead, — reading  the  annals  of  a mighty  people,  the  impres- 
sions of  whose  power  and  genius  are  most  closely  associated 


128 


MECHANICAL  LABOURS,  ETC. 


with  emblems  of  mortality, — whose  thoughts  must  have  been 
constantly  occupied  with  the  value  of  posthumous  fame, 
and  who  appear  to  have  spent  their  lives  in  preparing  a 
receptacle  for  the  body  after  all  its  earthly  attachments 
should  have  passed  away.  At  the  present  hour,  the  wide 
plain  of  Memphis  is  in  the  possession  of  those  who  urged 
its  labours  or  presided  over  its  affairs  three  thousand  years 
ago.  The  peasant  or  the  traveller,  accordingly,  who  seeks 
a dwelling  in  that  desolate  region,  must  enter  the  precincts 
of  a tomb,  and  share  an  apartment  with  bones  which  have 
been  insensible  during  many  centuries,  and  be  surrounded 
with  figures  and  inscriptions  which  point  to  events  not  re- 
corded in  any  other  history.  No  nation  of  the  ancient  world 
has  so  successfully  perpetuated  its  existence  through  the 
medium  of  death.  The  actual  inhabitants  of  Egypt  sink 
into  insignificance  when  compared  with  the  mouldering  dust 
of  their  ancestors ; and  the  proudest  edifices  which  they 
have  raised  since  the  days  of  the  Pharaohs  produce  not  on 
the  mind  of  the  spectator  ahy  other  feeling  than  that  the 
sons  have  gradually  degenerated  from  the  power  or  ambition 
of  their  fathers. 

We  reserve  for  another  chapter  an  account  of  the  ruins, 
more  strictly  architectural,  which  continue  to  adorn  the  sites 
of  the  ancient  cities,  especially  in  the  upper  division  of  the 
kingdom. 


LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE,  ETC. 


129 


CHAPTER  Y. 

The  Literature  and  Science  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians. 

Remains  of  Egyptian  Literature  scanty  but  valuable— Meaning  of  Hie- 
roglyphics— Picture-writing — Progress  towards  an  Alphabet ; Illus- 
trated by  the  Hebrew  and  other  Oriental  Tongues — Different  Modes 
of  Writing  practised  by  the  Egyptians,  Epistolographic,  Hieratic,  and 
Hieroglyphic  properly  so  called— Discovery  of  Rosetta  Stone— Re- 
searches of  Dr.  Young  and  Champollion — The  Practice  of  Chinese  in 
rendering  Words  Phonetic — The  Advantages  of  the  Hieroglyphical 
Method — Discoveries  of  Mr.  Salt — Anecdote  of  King  Tharnus— Works 
of  Thoth  or  Hermes — Quotation  of  Clemens  Alexandrinus — Greeks 
learned  History  from  Egypt — The  Numerical  System  of  the  Ancient 
Egyptians — The  Arabians  derived  their  Arithmetical  Signs  from 
Egyptians. 

The  materials  for  this  section  of  our  work  are  neither 
abundant  nor  various  ; but  they  are,  nevertheless,  extremely 
satisfactory,  and  point  out,  in  a manner  free  from  all  am- 
biguity, the  first  steps  taken  by  man  in  his  attempts  to 
communicate  his  thoughts  through  the  medium  of  written 
language.  The  literature  of  ancient  Egypt,  we  must  admit, 
does  not,  like  that  of  Greece,  call  forth  our  admiration  by 
splendid  poems  and  regular  histories  ; nor,  like  that  of  the 
Hebrews,  by  preserving  the  events  of  the  primeval  world 
in  a record  sanctioned  by  the  Spirit  of  Eternal  Wisdom. 
But,  notwithstanding,  in  the  brief  notices  which  have  come 
down  to  our  age  of  the  methods  adopted  by  the  early  Egyp- 
tians for  giving  permanency  to  their  conceptions,  we  have  a 
treasure  which,  to  the  philosopher,  is  more  valuable  than 
the  sublime  verses  of  Homer,  and,  in  a merely  grammatical 
point  of  view,  not  inferior  to  the  inspired  narrative  of  Moses 
itself.  We  allude  to  the  system  of  hieroglyphics ; the 
knowledge  of  which  is  very  important,  both  as  exhibiting 
authentic  specimens  of  picture-writing — the  original  expe- 
dient of  the  rude  annalist — and  also  as  indicating  the  path 
which  led  to  that  nobler  invention — the  use  of  an  alphabet. 

The  term  hieroglyphic  literally  denotes  sacred  sculpture, 
and  was  employed  by  the  Greeks  in  reference  to  those 
figures  and  inscriptions  which  they  found  engraven  on  the 


130 


LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE  OF 


temples,  sepulchres,  and  other  public  buildings  of  Egypt. 
The  practice,  however,  out  of  which  it  arose,  appears  to  be 
common  to  the  whole  human  race  in  the  first  stage  of  civil- 
ization ; being  dictated  to  them  by  necessity,  and  suggested 
by  the  most  obvious  associations.  Man  learns  to  paint 
before  he  attempts  to  write  ; he  draws  the  outline  of  a figure 
long  before  he  is  able  to  describe  an  event ; he  confines  his 
representations  to  the  eye  during  ages  in  which  he  can  find 
no  more  direct  means  of  addressing  the  understanding,  or 
of  amusing  the  fancy.  In  the  infancy  of  society,  all  com- 
munication not  strictly  verbal  is  carried  on  through  the 
medium  of  picture-writing ; and  this  imperfect  method 
continues  in  all  countries  until  a happy  accident,  or  the 
visit  of  a more  refined  people,  makes  known  the  secret  of 
alphabetical  notation. 

When,  for  example,  the  Spaniards  first  landed  on  the 
shores  of  America,  the  event  was  announced  to  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  interior  by  rough  drawings  of  men,  arms,  and 
ships;  some  specimens  of  which  have  been  preserved  by 
Purchas,  to  whose  laborious  diligence  we  are  indebted  for 
the  best  account  of  European  discovery  and  conquest  in  the 
western  hemisphere.  But,  generally  speaking,  the  aid  of 
an  alphabet  so  completely  supersedes  the  more  primitive 
usage,  that,  in  most  countries,  all  traces  of  the  latter  are 
speedily  forgotten ; and  it  is  only  by  a remote  and  rather 
indistinct  species  of  reasoning  that  the  philosophical  gram- 
marian endeavours  to  connect  the  refined  literature  of  a 
polished  age  with  the  rude  efforts  of  the  savage  to  imbody 
his  thoughts  in  external  signs.  The  monuments  of  Egypt, 
from  their  extreme  durability,  supply  a history  which  no- 
where else  exists  of  the  successive  steps  which  conduct 
mankind  from  the  first  point  to  the  last  in  the  important 
art  now  under  our  consideration.  Our  limits  will  not  per- 
mit us  to  enter  into  an  investigation  which  would  itself 
occupy  an  entire  volume ; we  shall  therefore  confine  our- 
selves to  a general  statement  of  first  principles,  and  to 
such  an  illustration  of  them  as  may  prove  intelligible  to  the 
young  reader,  who  may  not  have  other  opportunities  of 
studying  this  important  subject. 

The  first  and  simplest  expedient,  then,  is  that  already 
mentioned,  of  attempting  to  convey  and  perpetuate  the 
knowledge  of  an  event  by  forming  a rude  picture  of  it. 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


131 


The  inconvenience  inseparable  from  such  a method  would 
soon  suggest  the  practice  of  reducing  the  delineation,  and 
of  substituting  a sword  for  an  armed  man,  a flag  for  an 
invading  host,  and  a curved  line  for  a ship.  In  the  earlier 
stages  of  contraction,  the  abbreviated  forms  would  still  re- 
tain a faint  resemblance  to  the  original  figure  ; but  in  process 
of  time,  as  the  number  of  ideas  and  relations  increased,  the 
signs  would  deviate  farther  from  the  likeness  of  an  object, 
and  assume  more  and  more  the  character  of  a conventional 
mark,  expressive  of  thought  as  well  as  of  mere  existence.  At 
this  era,  however,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  second  in 
order,  every  sign  would  continue  to  be  a separate  word, 
denoting  some  individual  thing,  td^ether  with  all  the  cir- 
cumstances and  associated  reflections  which  could  be  con- 
veyed by  so  imperfect  a vehicle. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  language  of  China  retains 
the  aspect  now  described  at  the  present  day.  Attached  to 
old  habits,  or  repelled  from  imitation  by  the  contempt  which 
usually  attaches  to  ignorance,  the  people  of  that  vast  em- 
pire refuse  to  adopt  the  grammatical  improvements  of 
Europe,  which  would  lead  them  to  analyze  their  written 
speech  into  its  alphabetical  elements.  Their  composition, 
accordingly,  still  consists  of  a set  of  words  or  marks  expres- 
sive of  certain  ideas ; becoming,  of  course,  more  complicated 
as  the  thoughts  to  be  conveyed  are  more  numerous  or  sub- 
tile, and  requiring,  at  length,  a great  degree  of  very  painful 
and  unprofitable  study  to  comprehend  their  full  import. 

The  third  and  most  valuable  movement  in  the  progress  of 
grammatical  invention  is  that  which  provides  a sign  for 
expressing  a sound  instead  of  denoting  a thing,  and  dissects 
human  speech  into  letters  instead  of  stopping  at  words. 
The  apparatus  for  accomplishing  this  object  appears  to  have 
been  at  the  first  sufficiently  awkward  and  inconvenient.  In 
order  to  write  the  name  of  a man,  for  example,  the  inge- 
nuity of  the  Egyptian  philologist  could  suggest  nothing 
more  suitable  than  to  arrange,  in  a given  space,  a certain 
number  of  objects,  the  initial  letters  of  which,  when  pro- 
nounced, would  furnish  the  sounds  required.  For  instance, 
if  a person  following  that  scheme  of  notation  wished  to  re- 
cord that  Pompey  had  landed  in  Egypt,  he  would  describe 
the  action  by  the  wonted  signs  employed  in  picture-writing ; 
but  to  express  the  appellation  of  the  general,  he  would  find 


132 


LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE  OF 


it  necessary  to  draw  as  many  objects  as  would  supply  in  the 
first  letters  of  their  names,  P , o,  m,  p,  e,  y.  In  writing  the 
word  London,  on  this  principle,  we  might  take  the  figures 
of  a lion , of  an  oak,  of  a net,  of  a door,  of  an  oval,  and  of  a 
nail ; the  initial  sounds  or  first  letters  of  which  words  would 
give  the  name  of  the  British  capital. 

After  a certain  period  there  arose,  from  this  modified 
hieroglyphic,  a regular  alphabet  constructed  so  as  to  repre- 
sent and  express  the  various  sounds  uttered  by  the  human 
voice.  This  invention,  being  subsequently  communicated 
to  the  Greeks,  contributed  in  a great  measure  to  their  im- 
provement, and  laid  the  foundation  of  their  literary  fame. 
The  gift  of  Cadmus,  who  conveyed  sixteen  letters  across 
the  Mediterranean,  is  celebrated  in  the  traditional  history 
of  the  nation  upon  whom  it  was  conferred  ; and  hence  the 
arrival  of  that  renowned  adventurer  from  the  coast  of  Egypt 
continues  to  be  mentioned  as  the  epoch  when  civilization 
and  a knowledge  of  the  fine  arts  were  first  received  by  the 
barbarians  of  eastern  Europe.  The  trading  communities 
which  had  already  stationed  themselves  on  the  shores  of 
Syria  were  probably,  as  we  have  elsewhere  suggested,  the 
medium  of  intercourse  between  Egypt  and  Greece — a sup- 
position which  enables  us  to  account  for  the  similarity  ob- 
served by  every  scholar  in  the  more  ancient  form  of  their 
alphabetical  characters.  But,  whatever  ground  there  may 
be  for  this  conjecture,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  process 
detected  in  the  Egyptian  monuments  reveals  the  important 
secret  which  the  philosophical  grammarian  has  so  long 
laboured  to  discover. 

As  a proof,  and  at  the  same  time  an  illustration  of  the 
argument  now  advanced,  we  may  recall  to  the  mind  of  the 
oriental  student  that  the  alphabet  of  the  Hebrew,  as  well  as 
of  the  other  cognate  tongues,  is  in  fact  a list  of  names,  and 
that  the  original  form  of  the  letters  bore  a resemblance  to 
the  objects  which  they  were  used  to  express.  Alcph,  Beth, 
Gimel,  which  in  the  common  language  of  the  country  de- 
noted an  ox,  a horse,  a camel,  were  at  first  pictures  or  rude 
likenesses  of  a dwelling  and  of  the  two  animals  just  spe- 
cified ; proceeding  on  the  very  familiar  system,  not  yet 
exploded  in  books  for  children,  w here  an  a6s,  a bull,  and  a 
cat  are  associated  with  the  first  three  letters  of  the  Roman 
alphabet.  The  process  of  abbreviation,  which  is  rapidly 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


133 


applied  by  an  improving  people  to  all  the  technical  proper- 
ties of  language,  soon  substituted  an  arbitrary  sign  for  the 
complete  portrait,  and  restricted  the  use  of  the  alphabetical 
symbol  to  the  representation  of  an  elementary  sound. 

But  in  Egypt  the  use  of  the  hieroglyph  was  not  entirely 
superseded  by  the  invention  of  an  alphabet.  For  many 
purposes  connected  with  religion,  and  even  with  the  more 
solemn  occupations  of  civil  life,  the  emblematical  style  of 
composition  continued  to  enjoy  a preference  ; on  a principle 
similar  to  that  which  disposes  the  Jew  to  perform  his  wor- 
ship in  Hebrew,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  in  Latin.  There 
appears  also  to  have  been  a mixed  language  used  by  the 
priests,  partaking  at  once  of  hieroglyphics  and  of  alpha- 
betical characters  ; which,  in  allusion  to  the  class  of  men 
by  whom  it  was  employed,  was  denominated  hieratic. 
Hence,  in  process  of  time,  the  Egyptians  found  themselves 
in  possession  of  three  different  modes  of  communication — 
the  hieroglyphic,  properly  so  called,  the  hieratic,  and  the 
demotic  or  common.  This  distinction  is  clearly  recognised 
in  the  following  well-known  passage  extracted  from  the 
works  of  Clemens  Alexandrinus. 

Those  who  are  educated  among  the  Egyptians,  says  he, 
learn  first  of  all  the  method  of  writing  called  the  epistolo- 
graphic ; secondly,  the  hieratic,  which  the  sacred  scribes 
employ ; and,  lastly,  the  most  mysterious  description,  the 
hieroglyphic,  of  which  there  are  two  kinds, — the  one  denot- 
ing objects,  in  a direct  manner,  by  means  of  the  initial 
sounds  of  words  ; the  other  is  symbolical.  Of  the  sym- 
bolical signs  one  class  represents  objects  by  exhibiting  a 
likeness  or  picture  ; another,  by  a metaphorical  or  less  com- 
plete resemblance ; and  a third,  by  means  of  certain  alle- 
gorical enigmas.  Thus, — to  give  an  example  of  the  three 
methods  in  the  symbolical  division, — when  they  wish  to 
represent  an  object  by  the  first,  they  fix  upon  a distinct  re- 
semblance ; such  as  a circle,  when  they  want  to  indicate 
the  sun,  and  a crescent  when  their  purpose  is  to  denote  the 
moon.  The  second,  or  metaphorical,  allows  a considerable 
freedom  in  selecting  the  emblem,  and  may  be  such  as  only 
suggests  the  object  by  analogous  qualities.  For  instance, 
when  they  record  the  praises  of  kings  in  their  theological 
fables,  they  exhibit  them  in  connexion  with  figurative  allu- 
sions which  shadow  forth  their  good  actions  and  benign 
M 


1 34  LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE  OF 

dispositions.  In  this  case  the  representation  is  not  direct 
but  metaphorical.  Of  the  third  method  of  symbolical  writ- 
ing, the  following  will  serve  as  an  example  : they  assimilate 
the  oblique  course  of  the  planets  to  the  body  of  a serpent, 
but  that  of  the  sun  to  the  figure  of  a scarabseus.* 

In  the  above  extract  there  is  mention  made  of  that  spe- 
cies of  hieroglyphics  which  expresses  objects  by  the  initial 
letters , — a remark  that  is  now  perfectly  intelligible,  but 
which,  till  the  year  1814,  presented  a most  perplexing 
enigma  to  the  ablest  scholars  in  Europe.  It  does  not  prop- 
erly belong  to  the  business  of  this  chapter  to  give  a history 
of  the  various  steps  which  finally  led  to  a discovery  of  the 
path  that  promises  to  conduct  the  scholar  to  the  richest 
treasures  of  Egyptian  learning  ; but  as  the  subject  is  of 
considerable  interest,  and  affords  at  the  same  time  a striking 
instance  of  the  success  which  hardly  ever  fails  to  reward 
an  enlightened  perseverance,  we  shall  enter  into  a few 
details. 

When  the  French  were  in  Egypt  they  discovered,  in  the 
foundation  of  a fort  near  Rosetta,  a block  or  slab  of  basalt, 
which  presented  an  inscription  in  three  distinct  languages, 
namely,  the  sacred  letters,  the  letters  of  the  country,  and 
the  Greek.  The  first  class  obviously  comprehends  the 
hieroglyphic  and  hieratic,  the  mode  of  writing  used  by  the 
priests  ; while  the  second  not  less  manifestly  identifies 
itself  with  what  Clemens  calls  the  epistolographic,  and 
which  is  now  usually  particularized  as  demotic  or  enchorial. 
Unfortunately  a considerable  part  of  the  first  inscription 
was  wanting  ; the  beginning  of  the  second,  and  the  end  of 
the  third,  were  also  mutilated  ; so  that  there  were  no  precise 
points  of  coincidence  from  which  the  expounder  could  set 
out  in  his  attempt  to  decipher  the  unknown  characters. 
But  the  second  inscription,  notwithstanding  its  deficiencies 
near  the  beginning,  was  still  sufficiently  perfect  to  allow  a 
comparison  to  be  made  of  its  different  parts  with  bach  other, 
and  with  the  Greek,  by  the  same  method  which  would  have 
been  followed  if  it  had  been  entire.  Thus,  on  examining, 
in  their  relative  situation,  the  parts  corresponding  to  two 

* We  liave  given  a paraphrase  rather  than  a literal  version ; the 
original  not  admitting  of  a strict  rendering  without  sacrificing  the  sense 
of  the  author,  which  alone  we  have  endeavoured  to  retain. 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


135 


passages  of  the  Greek  inscription  in  which  Alexander  and 
Alexandria  Occurred,  there  were  soon  recognised  two  well- 
marked  groups  of  characters  resembling  each  other,  which 
were  therefore  considered  as  representing  these  names.  A 
variety  of  similar  coincidences  were  detected,  and  especially 
that  between  a certain  assemblage  of  figures  and  the  word 
Ptolemy,  which  occurred  no  fewer  than  fourteen  times ; 
and  hence,  as  the  Greek  was  known  to  be  a translation  of 
the  Egyptian  symbols,  the  task  of  the  decipherer  was 
limited  to  a discovery  of  the  alphabetical  power  of  the 
several  marks,  or  objects,  which  denoted  that  particular 
name.  It  was  by  pursuing  this  path  that  success  was  ulti- 
mately attained.  It  was  satisfactorily  made  out  that  hiero- 
glyphics not  only  expressed  ideas,  or  represented  things, 
but  also  that  they  were  frequently  used  as  letters  ; and  that, 
when  employed  for  the  last  of  these  purposes,  the  names 
of  the  several  objects  in  the  language  of  the  country  sup- 
plied the  alphabetical  sounds  which  composed  any  particular 
word. 

The  first  steps  which  led  to  this  important  discovery 
were  made  by  Dr.  Young,  who  ascertained  that  certain 
figures  in  the  group,  corresponding  to  the  word  Ptolemy, 
were  used  alphabetically,  and  represented  sounds.  Hence 
the  distinction  of  phonetic  hieroglyphics,  as  opposed  to  those 
which  are  understood  to  denote  objects  only.  A key  was 
thereby  found  for  unlocking  the  storehouses  of  Egyptian 
learning,  which  had  remained  inaccessible  to  many  genera- 
tions ; and,  whether  the  treasure  shall  prove  equal  in  value 
to  the  expectations  which  have  been  entertained  of  it,  there 
is  now  the  greatest  probability  that  the  famed  wisdom  of 
one  of  the  most  ancient  nations  of  the  world  shall  be  ren- 
dered familiar  to  the  modern  reader.  Already,  indeed, 
history  and  chronology  have  received  essential  aid  from  the 
investigations  of  recent  travellers,  guided  by  the  light  which 
has  just  been  revealed.  The  names  of  some  of  the  most 
distinguished  Egyptian  princes,  even  of  the  Pharaonic 
dynasties,  have  been  deciphered  from  monuments  erected 
during  their  respective  reigns.  The  canon  of  Manetho, 
which  it  had  become  so  common  to  treat  with  contempt, 
has  been  verified  in  many  points  ; and  in  this  way  the  titles 
of  several  monarchs  which  had  been  abandoned  as  fabu- 
lous, including  Misphragmuthosis,  Amenophis,  Harnesses, 


136 


literature  and  science  op 


and  Sesostris,  are  once  more  restored  to  the  page  of  authen- 
tic history,  and  to  their  place  in  the  succession  of  Egyptian 
sovereigns. 

Nothing,  perhaps,  connected  with  this  interesting  sub- 
ject is  more  surprising  than  that  the  priests  of  Heliopolis 
and  Memphis  should  have  continued  the  use  of  imitative 
and  symbolic  hieroglyphics  so  long  after  they  had  become 
acquainted  with  the  more  convenient  apparatus  of  alpha- 
betical writing.  But  this  fact,  which  might  otherwise 
appear  incredible,  finds  a counterpart  in  the  practice  of  the 
Chinese,  who,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,  retain  even 
at  the  present  day  a modified  species  of  hieroglyphics, — a 
literary  notation  that  denotes  things  or  ideas  instead  of  ex- 
pressing sounds, — and  which  they  likewise  can  render  pho- 
netic at  pleasure.  When,  for  example,  they  have  occasion 
to  indicate  any  foreign  combination  of  vocal  sounds,  such 
as  the  name  of  a European  object  or  person,  they  attach  a 
certain  mark  to  their  words,  and  thereby  convert  them  into 
letters  ; the  initial  consonant  of  the  several  terms  supplying 
the  successive  alphabetical  articulations  necessary  to  form 
the  noun  in  question.  At  this  stage  all  the  difficulty  of  the 
invention  is  conquered.  The  moment  that  men  have 
learned  to  denote,  by  a visible  sign,  a sound  instead  of  a 
sensation  or  an  event,  they  have  acquired  possession  of  an 
alphabet ; and  then  nothing  more  is  requisite  except  to 
abbreviate  the  figures  so  as  to  make  them  convenient  for  the 
rapid  uses  of  ordinary  life, — to  dismiss  the  picture,  in  short, 
and  substitute  an  arbitrary  mark,  according  to  the  practice 
of  European  nations.  But  the  ancient  Egyptians,  like  the 
modem  Chinese,  thought  proper  to  rest  satisfied  with  one- 
half  of  the  advantages  which  their  ingenuity  had  earned  ; 
continuing,  for  ages  after  the  knowledge  of  phonetic  charac- 
ters, to  intersperse  them  with  the  imitative  and  symbolical 
figures  which  in  every  other  country  those  others  have  com- 
pletely superseded. 

Leaving  it  to  the  historian  of  this  remarkable  discovery 
to  detail  the  incidents  which  accompanied  the  investigations 
of  Dr.  Young,  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  Akerblad,  Salt,  and  Cham- 
pollion,  we  confine  ourselves  to  the  statement  of  the  im- 
portant faet,  that,  from  a copious  induction  of  instances, 
extending  in  some  cases  to  several  hundreds  for  a single 
character,  the  last  of  these  authors  has  completely  ascer- 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


137 


tained  that  every  phonetic  hieroglyph  is  the  image  of  some 
physical  object  whose  name,  in  the  spoken  language  of 
Egypt,  begins  with  the  sound  or  letter  which  the  sculptured 
figure  was  destined  to  represent.  Thus  the  image  of  an 
eagle,  which  in  the  Coptic  is  Ahom , became  the  sign  of  the 
vowel  A ; that  of  a small  vase,  called  Berbe  in  Egyptian, 
stood  for  the  consonant  B ; that  of  a hand,  Tot,  represented 
the  letter  T ; that  of  a hatchet,  Kelebin , was  the  sign  of 
the  consonant  K ; that  of  a lion  or  lioness,  Labo,  the  sign 
of  the  consonant  L ; that  of  a nycticorax,  Movladj,  the 
sign  of  M ; that  of  a flute,  Sebiandjo , the  sign  of  the  con- 
sonant S ; that  of  a mouth,  Rd,  the  sign  of  the  consonant 
R ; and  the  abridged  image  of  a garden,  Shene,  the  sign  of 
the  compound  articulation  Sh. 

It  is  obvious  from  the  statement  now  made,  that,  as  there 
are  a great  many  objects  the  names  of  which  begin  with 
the  same  letter,  an  author  using  phonetic  hieroglyphics 
must  have  had  a wide  field  in  which  to  select  his  characters. 
Some  of  the  letters  were  in  fact  represented  by  fifteen  and 
even  by  twenty-five  different  figures.  M.  Champollion  is 
of  opinion  that,  in  writing  the  articulated  sounds  of  a word, 
the  Egyptians  chose,  among  the  great  number  of  characters 
which  they  were  at  liberty  to  employ,  those  figures  which 
by  their  qualities  represented  such  ideas  as  had  a relation 
to  the  object  which  they  meant  to  express.  For  example, 
in  designating  the  name  of  Notib,  one  of  their  deities,  they 
selected,  to  express  the  letter  B,  the  figure  of  a ram  in  pre- 
ference to  any  other  sign,  because  the  ram  was  by  itself  a 
symbol  of  this  deity ; so  much  so,  indeed,  that  we  often 
find  him  represented  under  the  figure  of  a man,  with  the 
head  of  that  animal.  For  the  same  reason,  to  express  the 
letter  N,  they  chose  from  among  the  several  characters  em- 
ployed for  the  purpose  the  sign  of  a vase,  because  it  was 
usual  to  represent  this  god  with  one  of  these  vessels  lying 
at  his  feet.  Again,  the  lion,  which  in  Coptic  was  called 
Labo,  stood  for  the  letter  L ; and  though  this  sound  was 
represented  by  several  other  signs,  the  Egyptians,  in 
writing  the  name  of  Ptolemy,  and  afterward  of  the  Roman 
emperors,  uniformly  employed  the  figure  of  that  noble  ani- 
mal, to  denote,  no  doubt,  the  corresponding  qualities  in  their 
powerful  and  magnanimous  sovereigns. 

Aji  author  was  thus  enabled  to  combine  with  a name  the 

M 3 


138 


LITERATURE  and  science  of 


character  of  the  individual  to  whom  it  applied, — possessing 
through  these  means  a fund  of  the  most  delicate  flattery  or 
panegyric.  Perhaps  it  may  have  been  solely  for  such  rea- 
sons that  hieroglyphics  continued  to  be  used  for  inscriptions 
and  legends,  in  preference  to  the  bare  notation  of  alphabet- 
ical signs,  long  after  the  superior  convenience  belonging  to 
the  latter,  for  merely  literary  purposes,  must  have  been 
universally  appreciated. 

We  may  observe,  too,  that  in  writing  hieroglyphics  the 
figures  may  be  placed  in  four  different  ways,  and  are  often 
found  so  arranged  on  the  same  monument.  They  are  either 
in  perpendicular  lines,  and  may  be  read  from  right  to  left 
or  from  left  to  right ; or  they  are  in  a horizontal  direction, 
following  the  same  variety  as  to  the  mode  of  reading.  Two 
rules,  however,  have  been  given  to  determine  which  way 
any  inscription  or  papyrus  is  to  be  deciphered.  The  first 
is,  that  in  hieroglyphical  manuscripts  the  characters  are  for 
the  most  part  placed  in  perpendicular  lines  ; while  in  sculp- 
tures and  paintings,  especially  when  they  refer  to  persons, 
the  signs  are  situated  horizontally.  The  second  rule, 
equally  general  and  equally  useful,  is,  that  every  inscription, 
manuscript,  or  legend  of  any  kind  whatever,  is  to  be  read 
from  the  side  towards  which  are  turned  the  heads  of  the 
animals  or  the  angular  edges  of  the  characters.  Thus  a 
line  of  hieroglyphics  is  like  a regular  procession,  in  which 
all  the  images  of  the  several  objects  follow  the  march  of 
the  initial  sign  ; and  it  is  probably  to  point  out  this  direc- 
tion that  all  the  figures  of  men  and  lower  animals,  whether 
birds,  reptiles,  insects,  or  quadrupeds,  have  been  designed 
in  profile. 

After  what  has  been  narrated,  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
observe,  that  the  learning  of  an  Egyptian,  like  the  similar 
acquirements  of  a modem  Chinese,  would  be  measured  by 
the  number  of  hieroglyphic  or  ideographic  signs  which  he 
was  able  to  interpret.  This  remark,  it  is  true,  applies 
almost  exclusively  to  the  figurative  and  symbolic  classes 
which,  instead  of  sounds,  denoted  things  or  qualities.  But 
as  there  were  scarcely  any  pieces  of  composition  executed 
entirely  in  phonetic  characters,  and  without  a considerable 
intermixture  of  the  two  others,  the  means  of  acquiring 
knowledge  among  the  subjects  of  the  Pharaohs  must  have 
been  extremely  limited.  Perhaps,  at  a more  advanced 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


139 


period  of  hieroglyphical  discovery,  we  shall  .find  that  many 
of  the  signs  which  are  at  present  esteemed  symbolical 
were  also  used  alphabetically, — an  expectation  which  has 
unquestionably  been  rendered  more  probable  by  the  recent 
investigations  of  Champollion  among  the  ancient  monu- 
ments of  Egypt. 

This  indefatigable  author  has  arrived  at  the  following 
conclusions,  founded  on  personal  research,  and  supported 
by  the  results  published  by  other  travellers  : — 

1.  That  the  phonetic  hieroglyphic  alphabet  can  be  applied 
with  success  to  the  legends  of  every  epoch  indiscriminately, 
and  is  the  true  key  of  the  whole  hieroglyphical  system. 

2.  That  the  ancient  Egyptians  constantly  employed  this 
alphabet  to  represent  the  sound  of  the  words  in  their  lan- 
guage. 

3.  That  all  hieroglyphical  inscriptions  are  composed  of 
signs,  which,  for  the  greatest  part,  are  purely  alphabetical. 

4.  That  these  alphabetical  signs  are  of  three  different 
Kinds, — the  demotic,  hieratic,  and  hieroglyphical,  strictly 
so  called. 

And,  lastly , that  the  principles  of  this  graphic  system  are 
precisely  those  which  were  in  use  among  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  The  hieroglyphical  alphabet  which  he  has 
already  discovered  includes  nearly  nine  hundred  characters, 
some  of  which  are  exclusively  phonetic,  but  the  greater 
number  appear  also  to  combine  the  properties  of  the  figura- 
tive and  the  symbolical  orders. 

We  cannot  leave  this  interesting  subject  without  men- 
tioning a discovery  made  by  Mr.  Salt,  which  proves  that 
phonetic  characters  were  in  use  as  early  as  the  reign  of 
Psammeticus, — an  inference,  indeed,  which  has  been  since 
extended  to  a much  remoter  period  of  Egyptian  history.  It 
had  occurred  that,  as  these  characters  were  applied  to  the 
names  of  foreign  monarchs, — the  Ptolemies  and  Roman 
emperors, — so,  in  all  probability,  if  known  at  the  time,  they 
would  likewise  have  been  made  use  of  in  expressing  the 
names  of  the  Ethiopian  sovereigns  who  had  previously  held 
the  country  in  subjection.  The  result  proved  the  sound- 
ness of  this  conjecture.  From  some  sketches  made  at 
Abydos,  he  was  fortunate  enough  to  decipher  the  name  of 
SABAKO  or  XABAKO40,  with  the  same  termination  which 
was  afterward  found  in  a MEN  040  ; and  in  an  inscription 


140 


LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE  OF 


taken  from  the ‘back  of  a small  portico  at  Medinet  Abou,  he 
discovered  the  name  of  TIPAKA,  who,  he  imagines,  can  be 
no  other  than  “ Tirhakah,  King  of  Ethiopia,  who  came  out 
to  make  war  against  Sennacherib,  king  of  Ass3'ria.”* 

If  this  supposed  identity  be  admitted,  it  wall  prove  that 
the  phonetic  characters  were  in  use  more  than  seven  hun- 
dred years  before  Christ,  and  it  wrnuld  also  establish  the 
reign  of  a sovereign  named  in  the  Bible,  of  whose  existence 
some  learned  men  have  been  inclined  to  doubt.  Nor  did 
JAv.  Salt’s  discoveries  stop  here.  Upon  the  high  granitic 
rocks  of  Elephantine,  and  also  on  a large  column  in  front 
of  the  great  Temple  of  Karnac,  he  made  out,  with  the 
utmost  ease,  from  beneath  the  obtrusive  name  of  a Ptolemy 
the  appellation  of  IIEAMITIK  written  phonetically.  This 
name  is  also  sculptured  on  one  of  the  smaller  temples  at 
Eleithias  and  on  the  Campensian  obelisk,  as  well  as  on  that 
in  Monte  Citorio.  But  we  have  already  remarked  that  the 
use  of  phonetjc  symbols  can  be  satisfactorily  traced  back 
as  far  as  the  reign  of  Misphragmuthosis, — fifteen  centuries 
at  least  before  the  Christian  era.f 

Some  readers,  it  is  presumed,  will  value  this  discovery 
more  because  it  seems  to  withdraw  the  veil  which  had  long 
concealed  the  origin  of  alphabetical  wrriting,  than  for  any 
light  which  it  may  prove  the  means  of  throwing  upon  the 
literature  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  Greeks  were  accustomed  to  attribute  to  the  priests 
of  the  Nile  the  merit  of  having  first  introduced  the  know- 
ledge of  letters  as  the  representatives  of  vocal  sounds,. 
Plato,  for  example,  relates,  that,  during  the  reign  of  King 
Thamus,  his  secretary  Thoth  came  to  lay  before  him  the 
discoveries  he  had  made,  among  which  ivas  the  invention 

* 9 Kings,  chap.  xix.  v. 

t We  refer,  once  for  all,  to  the  following  treatises  as  the  sources  of 
oyF  information  on  hieroglyphics : — The  article  “ Egypt,”  in  Supplement 
to  Eocy.  Urit.  An  Account  of  some  Recent  Discoveries  in  Hieroglyphical 
literature  and  Egyptian  Antiquities,  &c.  by  Thomas  Young.  M.D.,  F.R.S. 

& M.  Dacie’r,  relative  a l’Alphabet  des  Hieroglyphes  Phonetiques, 
par  M.  Champollion  le  Jeune.  Precis  da  Sysu&me  Jlieroglyphique 
des  Anciens  Egyptiens,  Sr. c.  p&r  le  m£me  Auteur.  Lettres  A M.  le  Due 
de  Blacas  d'Aulps,  &c.,  relatives  au  Mus£e  Royal  Egvptien  de  Turin, 
jSs&ay  on  Dr.  Young’s  and  M.  Champolliorr’s  Phonetic  System  of  Hieror 
xrlypluce,  <fcc. ; by  Henry  Salt,  Esq.  Article  “ Hieroglyphics,”  in  Edin. 
flsriew,  yol.  xlv.p.  96.  Lectures  on  the  Elements  of  Hieroglyphics  ang 
/fgypfian  Antiquities ; by  the  Marquis  Spineto. 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


141 


of  the  alphabet ; and  he  consulted  the  king  whether  it  might 
be  expedient  to  make  it  public.  His  majesty,  who  saw  the 
full  value  of  the  discovery,  was  particularly  opposed  to  the 
plan  of  recommending  it  to  general  use,  and,  like  a true 
politician,  concealed  the  real  cfftise,  while  he  assigned  one 
more  remote  and  secondary,  why  he  wished  that  it  should 
be  kept  secret.  He  therefore  told  his  ingenious  minister, 
that  if  the  new  mode  of  writing  should  be  divulged,  the 
people  would  no  longer  pay  any  attention  to  hieroglyphics ; 
and  as  these  would  consequently  be  soon  forgotten,  the 
invention  would,  in  its  effects,  prove  one  of  the  greatest 
obstacles  to  the  progress  of  knowledge. 

Whatever  may  be  the  precise  meaning  of  the  passage 
now  quoted,  it  seems  reasonable  to  infer  from  it,  that  in  the 
days  of  Plato  the  Greeks  ascribed  to  the  philosophers  of 
Egypt  the  honour  of  having  devised  a system  of  phonetic 
signs,  which  finally  superseded  the  cumbrous  expedient  of 
writing  by  pictures.  It  may  likewise  be  concluded,  although 
on  grounds  somewhat  different,  that  hieroglyphics  were  not 
invented  after  the  use  of  letters  had  become  known,  with  the 
view  of  concealing  mysteries  from  the  multitude,  but  that 
they  were  in  fact  the  original  mode  of  communication  em- 
ployed by  all  nations  in  the  rude  beginnings  of  society.  To 
suppose  that  they  were  introduced  for  the  sake  of  enhancing 
the  paltry  knowledge  possessed  by  the  priests,  or  for  con- 
fining the  lights  of  science  to  the  privileged  orders  of  the 
state,  is  an  hypothesis  contradicted  by  the  most  authentic 
historical  records  ; while  to  assert  that  the  Egyptians  had 
letters  before  they  had  hieroglyphics  is  not  less  absurd,  says 
Spineto,  than  to  affirm  that  they  danced  before  they  could 
walk.  On  this  question  the  only  difficulty  we  have  to  en- 
counter is,  to  explain  why  they  continued  so  long,  in  their 
public  monuments  and  more  solemn  transactions  at  least,  to 
use  the  ancient  method  after  they  had  become  acquainted 
with  a scheme  of  notation  so  much  better  suited  to  all  the 
purposes  of  literature.  Perhaps  certain  notions  of  sanctity, 
similar  to  those  entertained  by  the  Jews  in  regard  to  the 
name  of  the  Supreme  Being,  may  have  prevented  the  priests 
of  Pharaoh  from  revealing  the  attributes  of  their  gods  in  the 
vulgar  idiom  of  the  country. 

In  reference  to  the  knowledge  actually  acquired  of  the 
literature  of  ancient  Egypt  by  means  of  the  late  discove- 


142 


LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE  OF 


ries  in  hieroglyphics,  we  are  not  entitled  to  speak  in  boastful 
or  very  confident,  language.  The  wasting  hand  of  time, 
which  has  rendered  its  effects  visible  even  on  the  Pyramids, 
has  entirely  destroyed  the  more  perishable  materials  to 
which  the  sages  of  Thebes  nnd  the  magicians  of  Memphis 
may  have  committed  the  science  of  their  several  genera- 
tions. We  know,  too,  that  the  bigotry  of  ignorance  and  of 
superstition  accomplished,  in  many  cases,  what  the  flood  of 
years  had  permitted  to  escape  ; for  w’hich  reason  we  must 
not  estimate  the  extent  of  acquirement  among  the  wise 
men  of  Egypt  by  the  scanty  remains  of  their  labours  which 
have  been  casually  rescued  from  accident  and  violence. 
From  Diodorus  Siculus  we  receive  the  information  that  in 
the  tomb  of  Osymandias  were  deposited  twenty  thousand 
volumes, — a number  which  is  reduced  by  Manetho  to  three 
thousand  five  hundred  and  twenty-five, — all  of  which,  on 
account  of  their  antiquity  or  the  importance  of  their  sub- 
jects,  were  ascribed  to  Thoth  or  Hermes,  who,  it  is  well 
known,  united  in  his  character  the  intelligence  of  a divinity 
with  the  patriotism  of  a faithful  minister. 

Of  these  works,  which  unquestionably  belong  to  a very 
remote  antiquity,  we  have  a short  account  supplied  by  a 
Christian  bishop,  Clemens  of  Alexandria,  who  appears  to 
have  devoted  much  attention  to  the  learning  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  “ In  that  country,”  he  tells  us,  “ every  indi- 
vidual cultivates  a different  branch  of  philosophy, — an  ar- 
rangement which  applies  chiefly  to  their  holy  ceremonies. 
In  such  processions  the  sijiger  occupies  the  first  place,  carry- 
ing in  his  hand  an  instrument  of  music.  He  is  said  to  be 
obliged  to  learn  two  of  the  books  of  Hermes  ; one  of  which 
contains  hymns  addressed  to  the  gods,  and  the  other  the 
rules  by  which  a prince  ought  to  govern.  Next  comes  the 
Horoscopus,  holding  a clock  and  the  branch  of  a palm-tree, 
which  are  the  symbols  of  astrology.  He  must  be  completely 
master  of  the  four  books  of  Hermes  which  treat  of  that 
science.  One  of  these  explains  the  order  of  the  fixed  stars  ; 
the  second,  the  motion  and  phases  of  the  sun  and  moon  • 
the  other  two  determine  the  times  of  their  periodical  rising 
Then  follows  the  Hierogrammatist  or  sacred  scribe,  with 
twro  feathers  on  his  head,  and  a book  and  ruler  in  his 
hand,  to  which  are  added  the  instruments  of  writing,  some 
ink  and  a reed.  He  must  know  what  are  called  hiero* 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


143 


glyphics,  and  those  branches  of  science  which  belong  td 
cosmography,  geography,  and  astronomy,  especially  the 
lawrs  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  five  planets  ; he  must  be  ac- 
quainted with  the  territorial  distribution  of  Egypt,  the  course 
of  the  Nile,  the  furniture  of  the  temples  and  of  all  conse- 
crated places.  After  these  is  an  officer  denominated  Sto- 
listes,  who  bears  a square-rule  as  the  emblem  of  justice,  and 
the  cup  for  libations.  His  charge  includes  every  thing 
which  belongs  to  the  education  of  youth,  as  well  as  to  sac- 
rifices, first-fruits,  selecting  of  cattle,  hymns,  prayers,  reli- 
gious pomps,  festivals,  and  commemorations  ; the  rules  for 
which  are  contained  in  ten  books.  This  functionary  is 
succeeded  by  one  called  the  prophet,  wTho  displays  in  his 
bosom  ajar  or  vessel,  meant  for  carrying  water, — a symbol 
thought  to  represent  the  deity,  but  which,  more  probably, 
had  a reference  to  the  sacred  character  of  the  Nile.  He  is 
attended  by  persons  bearing  bread  cut  into  slices.  The  duty 
of  the  prophet  made  it  necessary  for  him  to  be  perfectly 
Acquainted  with  the  ten  books  called  sacerdotal,  and  which 
treat  of  the  laws  of  the  gods,  and  of  the  whole  discipline  of 
the  priesthood.  He  also  presides  over  the  distribution  of 
the  sacred  revenue  ; that  is,  the  income  arising  from  the 
performance  of  pious  rites,  and  dedicated  to  the  support  of 
feligious  institutions.  Hence,  there  are  forty-two  books  of 
Hermes,  the  knowledge  of  which  is  absolutely  necessary  ; 
of  these,  thirty-six,  containing  the  whole  philosophy  of  the 
Egyptians,  are  carefully  studied  by  the  persons  whom  we 
have  mentioned  ; and  the  remaining  six  are  learned  by  the 
Pastophori,  or  inferior  priests,  as  they  belong  to  anatomy, 
to  nosology,  to  instruments  of  surgery,  to  pharmacy,  to  the 
diseases  of  the  eye,  and  to  the  maladies  of  women.”* 

This  distribution  of  the  sciences  does  not  enable  us  to 
determine  either  the  principles  on  which  they  were  founded 
or  the  extent  to  which  they  were  pursued.  We  possess  a 
better  criterion  in  the  perfection  to  which  the  people  of 
Egypt,  at  a very  early  period,  had  carried  some  of  those 
arts  which  have  a close  dependence  upon  scientific  deduc- 
1 ions.  The  prodigies  of  Thebes  could  not  have  been  accom- 
plished by  a nation  ignorant  of  mathematics  and  chymistry  ; 
nor  could  the  pyramids,  the  obelisks,  and  the  monolithic 


* Clemen.  Alexandrin.  Strom,  lib.  vi.  p.  633. 


144 


LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE  OF 


temples,  which  still  meet  the  eye  of  the  traveller  in  almost 
every  spot  between  Elephantine  and  the  mouths  of  the  Nile, 
have  been  raised  without  the  aid  of  such  mechanical  powers 
as  have  their  origin. in  the  calculations  of  philosophy. 

It  seems  possible  that,  in  the  lapse  of  ages,  a country 
shall  lose  the  science  upon  which  the  arts  must  have  been 
founded,  while  the  arts  themselves  shall  remain  as  an  heredi- 
tary bequest  from  father  to  son.  The  Chinese  are  in  such 
a condition  at  present ; and  so  perhaps  were  the  Egyptians 
immediately  before  the  Macedonian  conquest.  But  as  the 
practical  excellence  of  several  of  the  arts  in  China  satisfies 
us  that  the  light  of  scientific  knowledge  must  at  one  time 
have  shone  in  that  vast  empire,  so  might  we  be  convinced, 
on  the  same  grounds,  that  the  artisans  of  Egypt  were 
instructed  by  men  who  had  made  great  progress  in  the 
various  branches  of  natural  philosophy.  We  are  in  tact 
informed  by  Manetho,  that  one  of  the  Pharaohs,  the  grand- 
father of  Psammeticus,  and  the  sage  Petosiris  his  contem- 
porary, wrote  valuable  treatises  on  astronomy,  astrology, 
and  medicine.  The  last  of  these  works  is  mentioned  even 
by  Galenus  and  Aetius,  while  that  on  astronomy  is  alluded 
to  both  by  Eusebius  and  Pliny  ; though  it  is  not  improbable 
that  they  were  altered  by  the  sophists  of  Alexandria  who 
began  to  flourish  under  the  reigns  of  the  Ptolemies.  It  is 
asserted  that  the  royal  author  and  his  philosophical  col- 
league undertook  to  explain  the  creation  of  the  world,  as 
well  as  the  influences  exerted  upon  the  human  frame  by  the 
heavenly  bodies  ; but  when  we  reflect  upon  the  channel 
through  which  this  account  has  reached  us,  we  must  not 
draw  hasty  conclusions  in  regard  to  the  physics  of  the 
ancient  Egyptian  school. 

Tatian  relates  that  the  Greeks  learned  how  to  write  his- 
tory from  perusing  the  Egyptian  annals.  This  assertion 
appears  to  be  well  founded  ; it  being  manifest,  that  from  the 
most  remote  antiquity  the  latter  people  had  adopted  the 
custom  of  transmitting  to  posterity  the  memory  of  past 
events.  Originally  they  seem  to  have  written  their  chroni- 
cles in  verse,  and  inscribed  them  on  stones  in  hieroglyphical 
characters  ; but  at  a certain  time  after  the  invention  of  the 
alphabet,  they  adopted  prose  and  began  to  form  regular 
books,  though  they  still  retained  the  custom  of  celebrating, 
in  lyric  measure,  the  praises  of  their  gods  and  heroes.  It 


the  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


145 


seems,  indeed,  according  to  the  account  of  the  industrious 
and  learned  Zoega,  who  has  collected  all  the  authorities  of 
ancient  writers  on  this  subject,  that  historical  treatises 
were  very  numerous  in  Egypt,  and  that  the  care  of  copying 
them  constituted  one  of  the  principal  duties  which  devolved 
upon  the  sacred  scribes.  Herodotus  himself  informs  us, 
that  he  acquired  all  his  knowledge  of  their  country  from  the 
priests,  who  read  to  him  from  a book  the  names  of  three 
hundred  and  thirty  kings  who  had  reigned  between  Menes 
and  Sesostris.  Theophrastus,  too,  who  may  be  regarded 
as  writing  from  personal  knowledge,  concurs  in  the  views 
just  stated.  Manetho,  again,  assures  his  readers  that  ho 
compiled  his  work  from  authentic  records.  Diodorus,  a 
writer  of  the  highest  credit,  refers  not  only  to  histories  in 
the  Egyptian  language,  but  to  commentaries  and  illustra- 
tions,— a fact  confirmed  by  Josephus  and  Strabo,  the  latter 
of  whom  even  praises  the  simplicity  of  their  style.  It  was 
from  these  sources  that  the  Greek  authors,  Eratosthenes, 
Agatharchides,  Artemidorus,  Syncellus,  Apollonides,  Ascle- 
piades,  compiled  their  histories  of  Egypt.  Besides,  we 
ought  not  to  forget  that  the  Grecian  writers  who  visited  the 
land  of  the  Pharaohs  found  it  already  in  a state  of  decay 
both  as  to  knowledge  and  power.  The  priests  had  lost 
much  of  the  learning  for  which  their  ancestors  were  cele- 
brated, and  no  longer  enjoyed  the  privileges  which  dignified 
their  order  prior  to  the  invasion  of  Oambyses.  A library 
at  Thebes,  so  early  as  the  reign  of  Osymandias,  proves  that 
before  the  Trojan  war  a taste  for  reading  had  spread  over  a 
large  portion  of  Egyptian  society.  There  was  a similar 
establishment  at  Memphis,  in  the  temple  of  the  god  Phtha, 
from  which  Naucrates,  a wretched  scribbler,  accuses  Homer 
of  having  stolen  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  and  of  having  after- 
ward published  them  as  his  own.  Such  a charge  evidently 
refutes  itself,  but  it  nevertheless  tends  to  confirm  the  con- 
clusion drawn  from  it  by  ancient  writers,  in  regard  to  the 
early  civilization  and  literary  habits  of  the  Egyptians.  The 
patronage  bestowed  by  the  first  of  the  Ptolemies  was,  there- 
fore, in  strict  accordance  with  the  pursuits  .of  the  peoplo 
whom  the  fortune  of  war  had  appointed  them  to  govern. 
The  splendid  collection  of  books  at  Alexandria  was  formed 
by  those  politic  sovereigns  as  one  of  the  means  whereby 
they  might  procure  popularity, — a motive  which  reflects  no 
N 


140 


LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE  OF 


less  honour  on  the  character  of  their  subjects  than  on  their 
own  penetration  and  beneficence. 

Nor  is  it  undeserving  of  notice,  that  in  the  most  brilliant 
period  of  Alexandrian  literature,  a large  share  of  attention 
was  bestowed  upon  the  antiquities  of  Egypt.  Nearly  three 
centuries  before  our  era,  the  works  of  authors  then  es- 
teemed ancient  were  sought  for  with  eagerness,  and  made 
the  subject  of  laborious  commentary.  Heyne,  in  a very 
ingenious  treatise  on  the  sources  whence  Diodorus  probably 
derived  the  materials  of  his  history,  has  mentioned  along 
list  of  writers  who  preceded  the  Sicilian,  as  compilers  on 
the  affairs  of  that  interesting  kingdom.*  In  this  way  we 
see  the  erudition  of  the  older  nation  reflected  from  the  works 
of  their  successors  in  a comparatively  recent  age  ; on  which 
account  we  think  it  not  too  bold  to  maintain  that  most  of 
the  scientific  and  literary  acquirements  which  distinguished 
the  Greeks,  while  the  rest  of  Europe  was  in  a state  of  bar- 
barism, were  derived  from  their  intercourse  with  the  scholars 
of  Thebes  and  Memphis.  In  fact,  at  one  time,  no  Greek 
was  accounted  truly  learned  until  he  had  sojourned  a certain 
period  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile  ; conversed  with  the  philoso- 
phers on  the  mysteries  of  their  science  ; studied  the  laws, 
the  government,  and  the  institutions  of  the  most  remarkable 
people  that  ever  existed  ; examined  and  explored  their  ever- 
lasting monuments  ; and  become  in  some  measure  initiated 
in  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians. 

Connected  with  the  subject  of  this  chapter,  and  not  a little 
important  in  itself,  is  an  inquiry,  which  has  lately  engaged 
a good  deal  of  attention,  into  the  Egyptian  method  of  arith- 
metical notation.  The  principal  writers  who  have  favoured 
the  world  with  their  opinions  on  this  interesting  monument 
of  antiquity  are,  M.  Jomard,  whose  name  has  been  already 
mentioned  as  the  author  of  an  essay  on  the  Pyramids,  Dr. 
Young,  M.  Champollion,  and  Dr.  Kosegarten,  who,  about 
two  years  ago,  published  a treatise  on  the  literature  of  ancient 
Egypt- 1 

This  system,  we  are  told,  is  neither  literal,  like  the  Gre- 
cian and  Roman,  nor  altogether  figurate,  like  the  Arabic,  but 

* De  Fontibus  Historiarum  Diodori. 

f De  Prisca  iEgyptiorum  Litteratura  Commentatio  Prima ; quam 
seripsit  Joannes  Godofredus  Kosegarten,  S.  S.  Theol.Doct.,  ejusdemque 
et  Lit.  Orient,  in  Academia  Grypliisvaldensi  Prof.  Vimarise,  1828. 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


14? 


something  intermediate  between  them.  It  is  constructed 
upon  principles  altogether  peculiar,  and  expressed  by  means 
of  certain  characters  or  signs,  which,  although  perfectly 
distinct  from  those  which  are  employed  in  the  graphic  sys- 
tem, are  nevertheless  framed- xipon  a strict  analogy  to  them, 
and  adapted  with  much  nicety  to  the  particular  form  of 
composition  in  which  they  happen  to  be  used.  As  there 
were  three  forms  of  writing  among  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
— the  hieroglyphic,  the  hieratic,  and  the  enchorial  or  de- 
motic,— so,  in  like  manner,  there  were  three  forms  of  nota- 
tion used  by  them  ; one  adapted  to  each  of  these  particular 
kinds  of  composition,  and  now  known  by  the  name  of  the 
variety  to  which  it  belongs.  But  as  the  hieroglyphic  or 
monumental  writing  is  the  basis  of  the  two  other  classes, 
so,  in  the  system  of  numerical  expression,  the  hieratic  is  a 
modified  form  of  the  hieroglyphic,  and  the  demotic  of  the 
hieratic.  In  the  last  two,  however,  there  is  this  peculiarity, 
— that  separate  modes  of  notation  are  employed  to  designate 
the  days  of  the  month,  and  that,  in  both  these  modes, 
several  of  the  numerals  which  we  now  denominate  Arabic 
are  distinctly  recognised.  This  very  remarkable  fact  has 
been  so  strikingly  exemplified  by  such  writers  as  have  ex- 
amined the  Egyptian  notation  in  detail,  as  to  leave  no  doubt 
whence  our  modern  symbols  originated.  It  does  not  indeed 
appear  very  clearly  which  of  the  three  forms  was  used,  in 
preference  to  the  others,  in  scientific  computations.  But, 
judging  from  analogy,  it  is  probable  that  the  demotic  nota- 
tion, like  the  demotic  writing,  was  employed  in  the  common 
transactions  of  life  ; while,  with  respect  to  scientific  calcu- 
lations, all  that  can  be  gathered  from  such  monuments  as 
the  zodiacs  of  Dendera  and  Esneh  amounts  to  nothing 
more  than  the  fact  that  the  numerical  expressions  are  uni- 
formly accommodated  to  the  particular  kind  of  writing  in 
which  they  occur. 

By  the  labours  of  several  distinguished  antiquaries  who 
have  applied  themselves  to  the  study  of  Egyptian  literature, 
the  hieroglyphic  signs  of  numbers  from  one  to  a thousand 
have  been  ascertained  beyond  the  possibility  of  doubt  or 
error : and  as  these  constitute  the  simplest  of  the  three 
forms  of  notation  in  use  among  the  ancient  Egyptians,  we 
shall  endeavour  to  represent  them  in  such  a manner  as  to 
render  the  principle  of  their  arrangement  as  intelligible  as 
our  means  will  admit. 


148 


LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE  OF 


The  nine  digits  are  not  formed  upon  the  Arabic  scheme 
of  having  a separate  mark  for  each,  hut  simply  by  repeating 
the  sign  of  unity  as  often  as  there  are  units  in  any  digit 
from  one  to  nine.  Thus  the  former  is  represented  by  a 
short  thick  stroke  | ; two  by,a  couple  of  such  strokes  | § ; 
three  by  j { [ ; and  so  on  to  ten  : the  higher  digits,  however, 
seven , eight,  and  nine , being  represented  frequently  by 
strokes  arranged  in  double  columns,  obviously  for  the  pur- 
pose of  saving  space.  The  mark  or  sign  for  ten  is  ; and 
all  the  intermediate  numbers  between  ten  and  twenty  are 
made  up  by  units  affixed  to  the  symbol  for  ten ; thus  hi  is 
eleven,  hu  is  twelve,  nin  is  thirteen,  and  so  on. 
Twenty  is  expressed  by  two  tens  ; and  the  interme- 
diate numbers  between  twenty  and  thirty,  in  the  same  way 
precisely  as  those  between  ten  and  twenty.  Thirty  is  reprea 
sented  by  three  tens,  ftHfl  ; forty  by  four  tens,  ft  (10^  * 
and  so  on  to  a hundred  ; the  tens  in  sixty,  seventy,  eighty, 
and  ninety,  being,  like  the  higher  digits,  generally  arranged 
in  double  columns.  From  a hundred , the  mark  or  sign  for 
Which  is  9,  to  a thousand , the  numbers  ascend  exactly  upon 
the  principle  already  explained  in  regard  to  the  preceding 
part  of  the  scale.  Thus  200  is  represented  ©9  5 300  §99  ; 

and  so  on  to  a thousand,  the  symbol  of  which  is 


Such  is  the  hieroglyphical  form  of  notation  ascertained 
by  a vast  number  of  readings  and  comparisons  ; and  from 
Vvhat  has  been  already  stated,  as  well  as  from  the  nature 
of  the  signs  themselves,  and  the  principle  upon  which  they 
are  combined,  it  seems  pretty  evident  that  they  could  never 
have  been  employed  except  in  monumental  inscriptions,  for 
Which  alone  they  are  adapted.  To  say  nothing  of  other 
objections,  the  method  is  by  far  too  operose  for  ordinary 
purposes,  and  never  could  have  been  applied,  with  any 
degree  of  success,  either  to  civil  affairs  or  to  scientific  com- 
putations. To  denote,  for  example,  the  present  year,  1831, 
It  would  require,  according  to  this  scheme,  no  fewer  than  thir- 


teen figures. 


» $999999 nm 


At  the  same 


time,  the  high  antiquity  of  this  method  of  numeration  is 
manifest  from  the  simplicity  of  the  principle  upon  which  the 
scale  is  constructed,  no  less  than  from  the  age  of  the  monu- 
ments on  which  the  inscriptions  have  been  discovered. 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


149 


The  hieratic  form,  which  is  the  most  complete  of  all, 
possesses  some  very  remarkable  peculiarities ; but  as  it 
passes  naturally  into  the  demotic  or  enchorial,  and  has  a 
much  closer  affinity  to  that  than  to  the  hieroglyphic,  we 
shall  confine  our  account  of  it  to  a mere  exposition  of  the 
principle  on  which  the  scheme  is  made  to  rest.  The  digits, 
omitting  the  variations,  which  are  of  little  importance,  are 
represented  thus  : — 

1 I 

2  M 

3 UJ 

4  

5 .......  Z 

Ten  is  represented  by  the  Greek  lambda  direct  or  re- 
versed \ or  X • The  sign  of  a hundred  is  , of  two  hun- 
dred of  three  hundred  JJ/,  of  four  hundred  ; while 
500,  600,  700,  800,  900,  are  represented  respectively  by 
combining  the  signs  of  200  and  300  ; of  300  and  300  ; of 
300  and  400 ; of  400  and  400  ; and  300  thrice  repeated. 
The  mark  for  1000  is  the  sanpi  of  the  Greeks.  5 ; the  sym- 
bol of  10,000  is  Qj  while  100,000  is  represented  by  the  sign 
of  *a  hundred  combined  with  that  of  1000. 

So  much  for  the  common  numbers  of  the  hieratic  scale. 
But  there  is  also  a peculiar  and  distinct  set  of  numerical 
signs  for  the  days  of  the  month  ; which  are  not  a little 
interesting,  as  exhibiting  the  source  whence  the  Arabians 
derived  three  or  four  of  the  figures  which  that  people  after- 
ward introduced  into  the  western  world ; thus  conferring 
upon  Europe  one  of  the  greatest  benefits  it  ever  received, 
at  the  hand  either  of  conqueror  or  of  sage,  the  art  of  printing 
alone  excepted.  These  numbers  resolve  themselves  into 
three  decades,  the  first  of  which  is  as  follows : 


6 ^ 

^ r 


=5 

Z. 


N 2 


LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE  OE 


150 


1 . 
a. 
3 . 

4* 
5 . 


1 

2 

1 

• 0 
21 


13 

■m 

* 


The  numbers  composingthe  second  decade,  or  from  ten  to 
twenty,  are  represented  by  combining  the  symbol  of  10  with 

the  digits  in  succession,  thus  1 1 ; 12 ; 7 13; 

and  so  oh  to  twenty,  the  mark  or  sign  of  which  is . 
Lastly,  from  twenty  to  thirty,  the  numbers  are  represented  in 
the  same  way  precisely  as  from  ten  to  twenty,  / , 21 ; 

a / 3 t 

SJX  ’ ^ ’ 's/I  ’ muc^’  t^ienJ  f°r  the  hieratic  nota- 

tion in  both  its  parts,  which  is  evidently  in  many  respects  a 
great  improvement  upon  the  hieroglyphic,  the  source 
whence  it  was  primarily  derived. 

The  demotic  form  of  notation  is  not  so  perfectly  under- 
stood as  the  method  just  described  ; there  being  a blank 
from  13  to  20,  and  from  60  to  100,  the  intervening  numbers 
not  having  been  yet  determined  by  actual  discovery.  The 
signs  or  marks  bear  a great  resemblance  to  those  of’ the 
hieroglyphic  class,  of  which  they  are  obviously  a copy  : — 


1 . . 

....  1 

8 . . . 

...  a- 

n . . 

• • • • M 

9 . . . 

. . . 2 

3 . . 

....  tM 

10  . . . 

4 . . 

20  . . . 

. . . > 

5 . . 

• • • • 0 

30  . . . 

...  3 

6 . . 

....  ^ 

40  . . . 

. . . < 

7 . . 

• • • • 2. 

50  . . . 

• • • ? 

The  history  of  the  various  steps  by  which  Champollion 
and  others  arrived  at  the  knowledge  of  the  numerical  system 


THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


151 


of  the  Egyptians  is  extremely  interesting,  and  affords  an 
instance,  almost  as  striking  as  that  of  phonetic  hieroglyphics, 
of  the  triumph  of  genius,  combined  with  perseverance,  over 
difficulties  which  appeared  entirely  insuperable.  Accident, 
it  is  true,  contributed  in  both  cases  to  diffuse  a light  over 
the  subject,  which  could  not  have  been  struck  out  by  dint 
of  unaided  sagacity.  The  Rosetta  stone  enabled  our  anti- 
quaries to  accomplish  what  the  learning  of  Clemens  and  the 
ingenuity  of  Warburton  had  failed  to  make  known  ; and,  in 
the  latter  inquiry,  the  appearance  of  a neglected  papyrus,  con- 
taining the  translation  of  an  ancient  deed,  supplied  the  means 
of  determining  the  value  of  a long  list  of  numerical  signs. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  was  to  Egypt  the  Sara- 
cens were  indebted  for  the  scheme  of  arithmetical  notation 
which  they  subsequently  communicated  to  the  scholars  of 
Europe.  Thus  it  is  rendered  more  than  probable  that  to 
the  same  people  we  owe  two  of  the  most  important  inven- 
tions  which  could  be  employed  in  the  service  of  learning, — 
an  alphabet,  and  a regular  scale  of  numbers  suited  to  the 
profoundest  investigations  of  science.  Justly,  indeed,  has 
it  been  remarked,  as  a most  striking  fact  in  the  history  of 
the  human  mind,  that  the  only  two  discoveries  which  no 
one  has  ever  claimed  as  his  own  are  precisely  those  which 
succeeding  ages  have  found  it  impossible  to  extend  or  im- 
prove, and  which,  at  the  period  of  their  first  introduction, 
were  as  complete  and  as  universal  in  their  application  as 
they  are  at  the  present  moment.  It  is  hardly  less  surprising 
that  the  Greeks,  who  were  indebted  to  the  Egyptians  for 
the  elements  of  almost  all  those  sciences  which  they  after- 
ward so  much  advanced,  should  have  failed  to  discern  the 
manifold  conveniences  attached  to  their  numerical  system. 
Some  centuries,  however,  had  passed  away  before  they  were 
induced  to  adopt  it  from  a people  comparatively  barbarous, 
but  who,  like  themselves,  had  profited  by  their  vicinity  to 
that  fountain  of  knowledge  which  so  long  beautified  and 
enriched  the  country  of  the  Pharaohs.* 

* To  the  authorities  mentioned  in  the  text  we  feel  satisfaction  in 
adding  an  article,  in  a recent  number  of  the  Westminster  Review,  on 
the  “ Egyptian  Method  of  Notation,”  to  which  we  acknowledge  ourselves 
under  great  obligations.  See  also  “ Remarques  sur  les  Signes  Num6- 
riques  des  Anciens  Egyptiens.  Par  E.  Jomard.  Description  de  l’Egypte, 
vol.  ii.  p.  57.  Antiquites.” 


152 


LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCE,  ETC. 


A review  of  the  literature  of  this  ancient  nation  might 
seem  to  require  that  we  should  give  an  account  of  the  theo- 
logical opinions  entertained  by  the  priests,  as  well  as  of  the 
doctrines  received  by  the  multitude,  relative  to  the  nature 
of  the  human  soul,  and  a future  state  of  reward  and  punish- 
ment. But  it  must  be  apparent  that  the  object  of  our  un- 
dertaking precludes  all  such  discussion,  as  being  at  once 
too  abstruse  and  too  extensive  in  its  ramifications.  It  may 
therefore  be  sufficient  to  observe  that  the  popular  religion 
of  Egypt,  like  that  of  all  pagan  tribes,  was  directed  towards 
those  qualities  in  the  physical  system  of  the  universe  upon 
which  the  permanence  of  the  animal  kingdom  is  known  to 
depend.  The  generative  and  prolific  powers,  under  their 
various  forms,  and  as  affecting  every  description  of  organ- 
ized matter,  were  worshipped  as  the  Universal  Parent, 
whose  names  were  multiplied  according  to  the  changing 
aspect  of  nature,  and  whose  attributes,  when  personified, 
gave  birth  to  a thousand  subordinate  divinities.  The  tenet 
of  the  metempsychosis  appears  to  have  regulated  the  faith 
of  the  people  so  far  as  it  applied  to  the  effect  of  their  con- 
duct on  their  future  condition.  The  soul  was  understood 
to  expiate  the  sins  committed  in  the  human  body,  or  to 
enjoy  the  rewards  due  to  pureness  of  living,  in  a succession 
of  transmigrations  during  three  thousand  years ; at  the  end 
of  which  it  was  expected  to  resume  its  former  tenement,  and 
to  discharge  once  more  the  functions  of  an  earthly  existence. 

Again,  as  to  the  poetry,  the  eloquence,  and  the  polite 
literature  of  that  remarkable  people,  we  are  still  too  ignorant 
of  the  Coptic  to  form  an  accurate  judgment.  But  there  is 
reason  to  hope  that  the  example  presented  by  M.  Quatre- 
mere  to  the  scholars  of  Europe  will  not  be  neglected — that 
the  spoken  language  of  the  Egyptians  will  at  length  receive 
a degree  of  attention  equal  to  its  importance — and,  conse- 
quently, that  the  productions  of  the  poets  and  orators  of 
Thebes,  the  passionate  effusions  of  the  lover  and  the  patriot, 
may  yet  be  added  to  the  stores  of  English  learning. 

In  respect  to  the  arts  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  we  shall 
have  a better  opportunity  of  introducing  a few  observations 
in  the  following  chapter,  where  we  intend  to  bring  before 
the  reader  a view  of  some  of  the  more  striking  remains  of 
their  taste  and  skill,  as  collected  from  the  descriptions  of 
recent  travellers. 


remains  of  ancient  art.  etc. 


Ift3 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Remains  of  Ancient  Art  in  various  Parts  of  Egypt. 

General  Magnificence  of  Remains — Alexandria — Pillar — Cleopatra’s 
Needle — Catacombs— Memphis— Beni  Hassan— Hermopolis  Magna— 
Antinopolis — Siout — Sepulchral  Grottoes— Temple  of  Anta  opolis — 
Abydos — Dendera  or  Tentyra — Magnificent  Temple  and  Portico- 
Elegant  Sculptures — Zodiac  and  Planisphere — Opinions  as  to  their 
Antiquity — Thebes — The  Gateway  or  Propylon  at  l.uxor — Magnifi- 
cent Sculptures — Karnac — The  Temple ; its  Approaches  and  splendid 
Gateways ; its  vast  Extent — Temples  at  Dair  and  Medinet  Abou— 
The  Memnonium — Statue  of  Memnou — Tombs — Ilerment — Esneh — 
Eleithias — Striking  Representations  of  Domestic  Life — Edfou— Iladjur 
Silsili— Koum  Ombos — Es  Souatt — Quarries  of  Syen£-  Island  of 
Elephantine  —Concluding  Remarks. 

We  have  purposely  made  a distinction  between  those 
immense  works  which  display  the  gigantic  plans  and  me- 
chanical- resources  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  the  speci- 
mens of  the  finer  arts  of  architecture,  statuary,  and  painting 
which  still  delight  the  eye  of  the  scientific  traveller  amid 
the  ruins  of  Thebes,  Dendera,  and  Ebsamboul.  No  view 
of  Egypt  would  be  complete  without  such  an  outline  as  we 
now  propose  to  exhibit ; for  it  is  not  possible  in  any  other 
way  to  connect  the  history  of  that  remarkable  country  with 
its  proud  monuments  of  ancient  taste  and  grandeur,  or  to 
render  credible  the  sublime  descriptions  which  have  been 
transmitted  to  us  by  philosophers  as  well  as  by  poets.  The 
remains  which  still  indicate  the  site  of  its  oldest  capital  pre- 
sent the  most  unequivocal  proof  of  its  early  civilization,  and 
of  the  high  degree  of  power  which  the  inhabitants  had 
attained  by  means  of  their  knowledge.  Its  origin  is  lost  in 
the  obscurity  of  time,  being  coeval  perhaps  with  the  people 
who  first  took  possession  of  the  country ; but,  to  give  an 
idea  of  its  great  antiquity,  it  may  be  sufficient  to  remark 
that  the  building  of  Memphis,  the  date  of  which  even 
stretches  beyond  the  limits  of  authentic  history,  was  the 
first  attempt  made  to  rival  its  magnificence  and  prosperity. 
Alluding  to  one  portion  of  that  splendid  city,  Champollion 
expresses  himself  in  the  following  terms : — “ All  that  I had 


154 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


seen,  all  that  I had  admired  on  the  left  bank,  appeared 
miserable  in  comparison  with  the  gigantic  conceptions  by 
which  I was  surrounded.  I shall  take  care  not  to  attempt 
to  describe  any  thing  ; for,  either  my  description  would  not 
express  the  thousandth  part  of  what  ought  to  be  said,  or, 
if  I drew  even  a faint  sketch,  I should  be  taken  for  an 
enthusiast  or  perhaps  for  a madman.  It  will  suffice  to  add, 
that  no  people,  either  ancient  or  modern,  ever  conceived  the 
art  of  architecture  on  so  sublime  and  so  grand  a scale  as  the 
ancient  Egyptians.  Their  conceptions  were  those  of  men 
a hundred  feet  high  ; and  the  imagination,  which  in  Europe 
rises  far  above  our  porticoes,  sinks  abashed  at  the  foot  of  the 
140  columns  of  the  hvpostyle  hall  at  Kamac.” 

The  traveller  from  Europe  usually  lands  at  Alexandria, 
a city  which  in  any  other  part  of  the  world  except  Egypt 
would  be  denominated  ancient.  The  pillar  which  graces 
that  capital  of  the  Grecian  kings  was  long  associated  with 
the  name  of  Pompey  the  Great ; but  an  inscription  upon  it 
has,  in  modern  times,  been  distinctly  made  out,  which 
proves  that  its  last  dedication  was  to  the  Emperor  Diocle- 
tian by  a prefect  who  happened  to  bear  the  same  name  as 
the  rival  of  Julius  Caesar.  We  have  just  insinuated  that  it 
was  no  uncommon  occurrence,  during  the  successive  dynas- 
ties which  governed  the  Egyptians,  to  carve  the  titles  of 
princes  on  palaces,  temples,  and  obelisks  which  had  existed 
a thousand  years  before  their  accession  to  power  ; whence 
it  must  appear  that  nothing  can  be  more  fallacious,  as  a test 
of  antiquity,  than  the  names  which  are  found  in  inscrip- 
tions, even  in  those  of  the  hieroglyphic  class.  Mr.  Salt, 
we  have  already  mentioned,  traced  the  appellation  of  one 
of  the  Ptolemies  engraved  over  that  of  Psammeticus — the 
sovereign,  it  is  probable,  in  whose  reign  the  original  build- 
ing was  erected. 

The  Alexandrian  pillar  stands  upon  a pedestal  twelve 
feet  high,  which  has  obviously  been  formed  of  stones  pre- 
viously used  for  some  other  purpose.  The  shaft  is  round, 
about  ninety  feet  in  length,  and  surmounted  by  a Corinthian 
capital  which  adds  ten  feet  more  to  the  elevation.  The 
column,  we  believe,  is  one  block  of  porphyry,  although  it 
has  more  usually  been  described  as  consisting  of  syenite  or 
Egyptian  granite.  It  is  nine  feet  in  diameter,  with  a per- 
ceptible entesis,  but  without  hieroglyphics  ; remarkably  well 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


155 


cut,  and  very  little  injured  by  the  effects  of  time.  No  one, 
however,  can  fail  to  perceive  that  the  shaft  does  not  corres- 
pond with  the  capital,  base,  and  pedestal,  which  are  ex- 
tremely poor  both  in  execution  and  taste. 

It  is  to  be  deeply  regretted  that  the  architectural  beauties 
of  this  celebrated  monument  are  not  a little  defaced  by  the 
undue  freedoms  which  have  been  used  by  certain  European 
visiters.  One  of  the  latest  writers  on  the  subject  informs 
us,  that  what  with  black  paint  and  red  ochre,  pitch  and 
sand,  the  pedestal  and  the  lower  part  of  the  shaft  may  now 
rival  the  party-coloured  mantle  of  Jacob’s  favourite  son.  It 
was  in  vain  to  look  for  any  of  Diocletian’s  inscriptions, 
since  the  scribbling  of  those  who  had  ascended  to  the  top 
had  obliterated  all  other  traces.  It  appears,  that  in  March, 
1827,  the  officers  of  the  Glasgow,  ship  of  war,  by  means  of 
flying  a kite,  had  passed  a string  over  the  top  of  the  column 
— to  this  they  fastened  a cord,  and  eventually  a rope-ladder. 
Their  example  has  been  followed  by  the  crew  of  almost 
every  king’s  ship  since  stationed  in  that  port.  Breakfasts 
have  been  given,  and  letters  written  on  the  top,  and  even  a 
lady  has  had  courage  to  ascend.  But  the  national  flag 
having  on  one  occasion  been  left  by  a party,  the  governor 
took  so  much  offence  as  to  prohibit  all  such  frolics  for  the 
time  to  come.* 

There  is  a want  of  unanimity  among  travellers  as  to  the 
precise  import  of  the  inscription  on  this  famous  pillar.  M. 
Quatremere  has  ascertained  that  there  was  in  the  time  of 
Diocletian  a prefect  whose  name  was  Pompeius,  and  thereby- 
afforded  a strong  corroboration  to  the  opinion  of  those  who 
think  that  the  monument  was  raised  in  honour  of  that  em- 
peror by  one  of  his  deputies.  But  Dr.  Clarke  read  the 
Greek  characters  so  as  to  substitute  Adrian  instead  of  Dio- 
cletian ; and  found  out,  at  the  same  time,  that  the  name  of 
the  commander  who  dedicated  the  pillar  was  Posthumus 
rather  than  Pompeius.  The  greater  number,  however,  fol- 
low the  version  which  retains  the  latter  appellation,  and 
which  by  that  means  accounts  so  easily  for  the  vulgar  error 
in  regard  to  the  object  of  the  erection. 

We  are  informed  by  Denon,  that  the  earth  about  the 

♦Travels  in  the  C'  mea. — A similar  feat  was  accomplished  in  1777 by 
an  English  captain.  3ee  Irwin's  Voyage. 


156 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART,  ETC. 


foundations  of  the  pillar  having  been  dug  away,  two  frag- 
ments of  an  obelisk  of  white  marble  were  discovered  to 
have  been  added  to  the  original  substructure.  These,  Dr. 
Clarke  thinks,  must  have  been  intended  merely  to  maintain 
the  base  in  its  adjusted  position  until  the  pedestal  could  be 
raised  upon  it,  and  that  they  were  not  meant  to  contribute 
to  the  support  of  the  column.  It  is  chiefly  deserving  of 
notice,  however,  that  the  block  on  which  the  pedestal  rests 
is  inscribed  on  the  four  sides  with  hieroglyphics,  the  figures 
or  characters  of  which,  being  inverted,  show  that  it  has 
been  turned  upside  dowm ; thus  affording  a complete  proof 
that  the  stone  must  have  belonged  to  some  more  ancient 
work,  which  was  probably  in  ruins  before  the  pillar  was 
erected  in  its  present  site. 

In  a remote,  unfrequented  part  of  the  city  stands  the  obe 
lisk  well  known  by  the  name  of  Cleopatra’s  Needle,  and 
which  is  described  as  a fine  piece  of  granite  covered  with 
hieroglyphics.  There  were  originally  two  of  these,  appa- 
rently brought  from  Heliopolis  or  Thebes  to  adorn  the  en- 
trance to  the  palace  of  the  Ptolemies.  About  twelve  years 
ago,  when  Dr.  Richardson  visited  Alexandria,  the  one  stood 
erect,  the  other  lay  prostrate  on  the  ground ; but,  in  regard 
to  the  latter,  he  remarks  that  it  was  mounted  on  props,  and 
seemed  as  if  “ prepared  for  a journey.”  It  has  been  since 
removed,  with  the  view  of  being  conveyed  to  England, 
though  it  has  not  yet,  so  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  learn, 
reached  its  destination.  The  dimensions  are  sixty-four 
feet  in  length,  and  eight  feet  square  at  the  base. 

Alexandria  presents  many  other  remains  of  sumptuous 
buildings,  of  which  there  is  no  tradition  among  the  inhabit- 
ants on  which  any  reliance  can  be  placed.  On  each  side 
of  what  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  principal  streets 
are  still  to  be  seen  rows  of  stately  marble  columns,  all  over- 
turned and  neglected.  They  are  conjectured  to  be  the 
relics  of  a magnificent  colonnade  which  extended  between 
the  gates  of  the  Sun  and  Moon,  and  was  regarded  as  one 
of  the  most  striking  ornaments  of  the  city  ; but  in  the 
hands  of  the  Turks,  as  some  author  has  observed,  every 
thing  goes  to  decay,  and  nothing  is  repaired.  Wherever  an 
excavation  is  made,  an  arch,  a pillar,  or  a rich  cornice  indi- 
cates that  a splendid  structure  had  once  occupied  the 
ground,  but  can  supply  no  information  as  to  the  object,  the 


158 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


date,  the  name,  or  the  founder.  For  miles  the  suburbs  are 
covered  with  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  town.  Heaps  of 
brick  and  mortar,  mixed  with  broken  shafts  and  mutilated 
capitals,  cover  immense  vaults,  which,  serving  as  reservoirs 
of  water,  are  replenished  on  every  overflow  of  the  Nile. 
Perhaps  much  of  this  devastation,  as  well  as  of  the  igno- 
rance which  prevails  respecting  it,  may  be  attributed  to  the 
effects  of  that  fatal  earthquake  which  swallowed  up  50,000 
of  the  inhabitants,  and  threw  down  the  loftiest  of  their 
edifices.  But  on  such  subjects  all  inquiry  is  vain,  for  the 
traveller  finds  that  the  degraded  beings  who  now  occupy 
the  wrecks  of  this  superb  metropolis  are  equally  indifferent 
arid  ill-informed  as  to  every  event  which  preceded  their  own 
times. 

The  Catacombs  of  Alexandria  present  nothing  very  re- 
markable, being  in  a condition  nearly  as  ruinous  as  the  city 
whose  dead  they  were  intended  to  receive.  The  real  en- 
trance to  these  subterraneous  abodes  is  unknown  ; the  pres- 
ent passage  opening  from  the  seashore  like  the  approach 
into  a grotto.  The  most  of  the  chambers  are  so  entirely 
choked  up  with  sand  that  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  crawl 
into  them  even  on  the  hands  and  knees.  Their  form,  as 
well  as  the  doors,  pilasters,  and  sarcophagi,  show  them  to 
be  the  work  of  Grecian  artists ; but,  although  in  size  they 
are  fully  equal  to  the  Egyptian  catacombs,  yet  in  the  article 
of  decoration  they  are  not  once  to  be  compared  to  them. 
All  along  the  shore  of  the  western  harbour  are  numerous 
sepulchres  of  inconsiderable  note,  some  of  them  under  the 
rock ; many  are  merely  cut  into  it,  and  open  to  the  air  ; 
and  not  a few  are  under  the  level  of  the  sea.  Several  baths 
are  likewise  exhibited  in  this  quarter,  which  as  usual  are 
assigned  to  Cleopatra ; but  such  of  them  as  are  now  to  be 
seen  are  equally  small  and  incommodious,  and  of  a descrip- 
tion far  too  inferior  to  countenance  the  supposition  that 
they  had  ever  been  used  by  her  whose  beauty  and  accom- 
plishments triumphed  over  the  heroes  of  Rome.* 

In  ascending  the  Nile  we  shall  take  no  notice  of  Cairo, 
because  the  works  which  it  exhibits  do  not  serve  to  illus- 
trate the  principles  of  the  arts,  or  to  display  the  remains  of 
the  grandeur  for  which  the  ancient  Egyptians  are  cele- 

* Richardson’s  Travels,  Vol.  i.  p.  21. 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


159 


brated.  We  should  willingly  detain  the  reader  at  Memphis, 
did  any  relics  of  its  magnificence  occupy  the  ground  on 
which  it  once  stood,  to  gratify  the  rational  curiosity  its 
name  cannot  fall  to  excite.  But  we  shall  only  quote  from, 
an  old  writer  a description  of  that  capital  as  it  appeared  in 
the  twelfth  century.  “Among  the  monuments  of  the 
power  and  genius  of  the  ancients,”  says  Edrisi,  “ are  the 
remains  still  extant  in  old  Misr  or  Memphis.  That  city,  a 
little  above  Fostat,  in  the  province  of  Djizeh,  was  inhabited 
by  the  Pharaohs,  and  is  the  ancient  capital  of  the  kingdom 
of  Egypt.  Such  it  continued  to  be  till  ruined  by  Bokht- 
nasr  (Nebuchadnezzar) ; but  many  years  afterward,  when 
Alexander  had  built  Iskanderiyeh  (Alexandria),  this  latter 
place  was  made  the  metropolis  of  Egypt,  and  retained  that 
pre-eminence  till  the  Moslems  conquered  the  country  under 
Amru  ebn  el  Aasi,  who  transferred  the  seat  of  government 
to  Fostat.  At  last  El  Moezz  came  from  the  wTest  and  built 
El  Cahirah  (Cairo),  which  has  ever  since  been  the  royal 
place  of  residence.  But  let  us  return  to  the  description  of 
Memf,  also  called  old  Misr.  Notwithstanding  the  vast 
extent  of  this  city,  the  remote  period  at  which  it  was  built, 
the  change  of  the  dynasties  to  which  it  has  been  subjected, 
the  attempts  made  by  various  nations  to  destroy  even  the 
vestiges,  and  to  obliterate  every  trace  of  it  by  removing  the 
stones  and  materials  of  which  it  was  formed, — ruining  its 
houses,  and  defacing  its  sculptures  ; notwithstanding  all 
this,  combined  with  what  more  than  four  thousand  years 
must  have  done  towards  its  destruction,  there  are  yet  found 
in  it  works  so  wonderful  that  they  confound  even  a re- 
flecting mind,  and  are  such  as  the  most  eloquent  would  not 
be  able  to  describe.  The  more  you  consider  them  the  more 
does  your  astonishment  increase  ; and  the  more  you  look 
at  them  the  more  pleasure  you  experience.  Every  idea 
which  they  suggest  immediately  gives  birth  to  some  other 
still  more  novel  and  unexpected  ; and  as  soon  as  you  ima- 
gine that  you  have  traced  out  their  full  scope,  you  discover 
that  there  is  something  still  greater  behind.” 

Among  the  works  here  alluded  to,  he  specifies  a mono- 
lithic temple,  similar  to  the  one  mentioned  by  Herodotus, 
adorned  with  curious  sculptures.  He  next  expatiates  upon 
the  idols  found  among  the  ruins,  not  less  remarkable  for 
the  beauty  of  their  forms,  the  exactness  of  their  proportions, 


160 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


and  perfect  resemblance  to  nature,  than  for  their  truly  as- 
tonishing dimensions.  We  measured  one  of  them,  he  says, 
which,  without  including  the  pedestal,  was  forty-five  feet 
in  height,  fifteen  feet  from  side  to  side,  aftid  from  back  to 
front  in  the  same  proportion.  It  was  of  one  block  of  red 
granite,  covered  with  a coating  of  red  varnish,  the  antiquity 
of  which  seemed  only  to  increase  its  lustre.* 

The  ruins  of  Memphis,  in  his  time,  extended  to  the  dis- 
tance of  half  a day’s  journey  in  every  direction.  But  so 
rapidly  has  the  work  of  destruction  proceeded  since  the 
twelfth  century,  that  few  points  have  been  more  debated 
by  modern  travellers  than  the  site  of  this  celebrated  me- 
tropolis. Dr.  Pococke  and  Mr.  Bruce,  with  every  show  of 
reason,  fixed  upon  Metrahenny,  an  opinion  which  was  op- 
posed by  Dr.  Shaw,  who  argued  in  favour  of  Djizeh.  But 
the  investigations  of  the  F rench  appear  to  have  decided  the 
question.  At  Metrhaine,  one  league  from  Sakhara,  we 
found,  says  General  Dugna,  so  many  blocks  of  granite 
covered  with  hieroglyphics  and  sculptures  around  and 
within  an  esplanade  three  leagues  in  circumference,  en- 
closed by  heaps  of  rubbish,  that  we  were  convinced  that 
these  must  be  the  ruins  of  Memphis.  The  sight  of  some 
fragments  of  one  of  those  colossuses,  which  Herodotus 
says  were  erected  by  Sesostris  at  the  entrance  of  the  tem- 
ple of  Vulcan,  would,  indeed,  have  been  sufficient  to 
dispel  our  doubts  had  any  remained.  The  wrist  of  this 
colossus,  which  Citizen  Coutelle  caused  to  be  removed, 
shows  that  it  must  have  been  forty-five  feet  high  ! 

The  ruins  of  Beni  Hassan,  although  comparatively  a 
modern  place,  bear  decided  marks  of  antiquity  ; the  mate- 
rials of  the  principal  buildings  having  been  conveyed  from 
some  more  ancient  town, — a practice  which  appears  to 
have  become  frequent  under  the  Ptolemies  as  well  as  in 
the  earlier  times  of  the  Roman  ascendency.  The  grottos, 
however,  which  were  once  the  abodes  of  holy  hermits,  are 
the  most  striking  remains  of  this  village,  and  are  remark- 
able for  paintings,  of  which  Mr.  Hamilton  has  given  an 
elaborate  account.  The  ceilings  of  these  chambers  are 

* Abdollatiph’s  Abridgment  of  Edrisi,  translated  by  M.  Silvestre  de 
Sacy.  Encyclopaedia  Metropolitana,  article  Egypt. 

t Courrier  de  l’Egypte.  A plan  of  the  ruins  is  given  by  M.  Jacotin  in 
the  Description  de  l’Egypte. 


itf  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


161 


generally  arched,  while  others  are  supported  by  Columns 
cut  out  of  the  rock,  having  a truly  Egyptian  character,  and 
the*  appearance  of  four  branches  of  palm-trees  tied  together. 
The  largest  is  sixty  feet  in  length,  and  forty  in  height ; to 
the  south  of  it  are  seventeen  smaller  apartments,  and 
probably  the  same  number  to  the  north.  Ten  columns 
originally  supported  this  large  chamber,  four  of  which  are 
fallen  down.  There  were  two  other  rooms  of  nearly  similar 
dimensions,  from  which,  as  in  the  former  case,  there  were 
doorways  leading  into  inferior  apartments,  suggesting  the 
idea  of  halls  surrounded  by  cells  for  the  private  accommo- 
dation of  the  inmates. 

Ashmonein,  the  ancient  Hermopolis  Magna,  is  now  re- 
duced to  the  state  of  a village,  though  the  remains  of  its 
former  magnificence  may  yet  be  traced  over  an  area  four 
miles  in  circumference.  The  portico  of  a temple  is  described 
by  Mr.  Leigh,  who  saw  it  in  the  year  1813,  as  quite  perfect. 
It  consists  of  twelve  massive  columns,  which  are  not  built 
of  cylindrical  blocks  of  stone,  but  each  block  is  formed  of 
several  pieces  so  neatly  joined  together  that,  where  they  are 
not  injured  by  time,  it  is  difficult  to  discover  the  junction 
of  the  several  fragments.  The  columns  are  arranged  in 
two  rows,  distant  from  each  other  twelve  feet ; and  the  roof 
is  formed  of  large  flags  of  stone,  covered  with  stucco  and 
beautifully  ornamented.  The  columns  and  the  whole  inte- 
rior of  the  portico  have  been  painted  ; among  the  colours  red, 
blue,  and  yellow  seem  to  predominate.  The  hieroglyphics 
on  the  plinths  are  different  on  each  front,  but  they  are  the 
same  on  every  plinth  on  the  same  front.  The  capitals, 
which  in  some  degree  represent  the  tulip  in  bud,  are  let  into 
the  columns.  Several  other  shafts  of  granite  are  scattered 
about  near  the  temple,  bearing  a distinct  evidence  to  its 
original  extent  and  grandeur. 

We  pass  by  Antinopolis  or  Sheikh  Ababde,  because  its 
features  unequivocally  denote  its  modern  origin,  and  fix  its 
larger  buildings  to  the  time  of  the  Romans.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  erected  by  the  emperor  Hadrian  in  memory  of 
Antinous,  who  perished  in  the  Nile;  and  it  has  been  re- 
marked that  its  colonnades,  triumphal  arches,  baths,  and 
amphitheatres  are  as  little  in  unison  with  the  surrounding 
objects,  and  as  foreign  to  the  soil  in  which  they  stand,  as 
O 2 


162 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


was  the  new  capital  raised  by  the  same  people  at  Tr  ves, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Moselle. 

Siout,  which  is  now  esteemed  the  metropolis  of  Upper 
Egypt,  is  better  stored  with  the  relics  of  former  days,  con- 
sisting, however,  of  tombs  and  sepulchral  grottos  rather  than 
of  the  more  lively  monuments  of  antiquity,  the  palaces  and 
temples  of  the  victorious  Pharaohs.  Norden  describes  at 
some  length  those  primeval  repositories  of  the  dead,  which 
are  excavated  in  the  mountains  about  half  a league  from  the 
modern  town.  Passing  a gateway,  the  visiter  enters  a large 
saloon  supported  by  hexagonal  pillars  hewn  out  of  the  rock 
itself.  The  roofs  are  adorned  with  paintings,  which  can  be 
distinguished  sufficiently  well  even  at  present ; and  the  gold 
that  was  employed  in  the  decoration  glitters  on  all  sides* 
There  are  perceived  here  and  there  some  openings  which 
lead  to  other  apartments  ; but  the  accumulation  of  sand  and 
rubbish  prevents  all  ingress.  He  suggests  that  there  are 
three  tiers  of  tombs,  approachable  by  separate  avenues  from 
the  outside, — an  opinion  which  is  confirmed  by  Sir  F.  Hen- 
niker,  who  observed  in  the  second  story  an  excavation  of 
108  feet  by  78,  the  entrance  of  which  was  ornamented  with 
some  costly  sculptures.  Denon,  indeed,  assures  u&  that  all 
the  inner  porches  of  these  grottoes  are  covered  with  hiero- 
glyphics : “ Months,”  says  he,  “ would  be  required  to  read 
them,  even  if  one  knew  the  language,  and  it  would  take 
years  to  copy  them.  One  thing  I saw  by  the  little  daylight 
that  enters  the  first  porch, — that  all  the  elegancies  .of  orna- 
ment which  the  Greeks  have  employed  in  their  architecture, 
all  the  wavy  lines  and  scrolls,  and  other  Greek  forms,  are 
here  executed  with  taste  and  exquisite  delicacy.  If  one  of 
these  excavations  were  a single  operation,  as  the  uniform 
regularity  of  the  plan  of  each  woqld  seem  to  indicate,  it  must 
have  been  an  immense  labour  to  construct  a tomb.  But  we 
may  suppose  that  such  a one,  when  finished,  would  serve 
for  ever  for  the  sepulture  of  a whole  family,  or  even  race, 
and  that  some  religious  worship  was  regularly  paid  to  the 
dead  ; else,  where  would  have  been  the  use  of  such  laboured 
ornaments  in  the  form  of  inscriptions  never  to  be  read,  and 
a ruinous,  secret,  and  buried  splendour.  At  different  periods, 
or  at  annual  festivals,  or  when  some  new  inhabitant  was 
added  to  the  tombs,  funereal  rites  were  doubtless  performed, 
in  which  the  pomp  of  ceremony  might  vie  with  the  magnifi 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


163 


cence  of  the  place.  • This  is  the  more  probable,  as  the  rich- 
ness of  decoration  in  the  interior  forms  a most  striking  contrast 
with  the  outer  walls,  which  are  only  the  rough  natural  rock. 
I found  one  of  these  caves  with  a single  saloon,  in  which 
were  an  innumerable  quantity  of  graves  cut  in  the  rock  in 
Regular  order ; they  had  been  ransacked  with  the  view  of 
procuring  mummies,  and  I found  several  fragments  of  their 
contents,  such  as  linen,  hands,  feet,  and  loose  bones.  Be- 
sides these  principal  grottoes,  there  is  such  a countless  num- 
ber of  smaller  excavations  that  the  whole  rock  is  cavernous, 
and  resounds  under  the  foot.”* 

The  temple  at  Antseopolis,  the  modern  Gau-el-Kebir,  is 
well  deserving  of  attention,  and  more  especially  as  it  is  fast 
mouldering  into  a heap  of  ruins.  The  portico,  in  the  year 
1813,  consisted  of  three  rows,  each  of  six  columns,  eight 
feet  in  diameter,  and,  with  their  entablature,  sixty-two  feet 
high.  This  structure,  which,  from  its  situation  in  a thick 
grove  of  palm-trees,  is  perhaps  the  most  picturesque  in 
Egypt,  stands  close  to  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  whose  waters 
have  already  undermined  some  part  of  it,  and  threaten  to 
wash  the  whole  away.  The  columns,  architraves,  and 
indeed  every  stone  of  the  building,  are  covered  with  hiero- 
glyphics in  bas-relief.  At  the  farthest  extremity  of  the 
temple  is  an  immense  block  of  granite  of  a pyramidal  form, 
twelve  feet  high,  and  nine  feet  square  at  the  base,  in  which 
a niche  has  been  cut,  seven  feet  in  height,  four  feet  wide,  and 
three  deep.  It  is  hollowed  out,  as  if  for  the  reception  of  a 
statue,  though  Mr.  Leigh  imagined  that  the  cavity  was  meant 
as  a chest  or  depository  for  the  sacred  birds. 

In  the  year  1817,  many  overturned  stones  and  pillars  were 
lying  on  the  brink  of  the  river,  or  had  fallen  into  its  channel. 
Of  the  portico  just  described  only  one  column  remained 
standing,  presenting  a shaft  from  forty  to  fifty  feet  in  height, 
wrought  into  panels,  and  surmounted  with  a capital  like 
the  calix  of  a flower.  The  space  between  each  of  the  com- 
partments was  occupied  by  rows  of  hieroglyphics  ; and  the 
compartments  themselves  were  filled  with  figures  of  Osiris, 
Isis,  and  Anubis,  receiving  offerings  under  different  forms. 
A column,  which  seemed  to  have  recently  fallen  down  at  its 
side,  consisted  of  the  same  number  of  stones,  and  was 
sculptured  in  a similar  manner. 

* Denon,  vol.  i.  p.  150. 


164 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


Two  years  afterward,  the  fine  vestibule  of  antaeopolk 
was  entirely  levelled  with  the  ground.  The  Nile,  in  this 
part  of  its  course,  had  long  been  advancing  towards  the 
eastern  side  of  the  valley,  and  washing  away  the  foundations 
of  such  buildings  as  stood  upon  its  right  bank : when,  in  the 
year  just  mentioned,  in  consequence  of  an  unusually  high 
inundation,  it  completed  the  work  of  destruction,  reducing 
this  splendid  monument  of  ancient  piety  to  a mass  of  ruins.* 
As  our  object  in  this  survey  of  ancient  buildings  and 
ruined  cities  is  not  confined  to  a mere  topographical  de- 
scription, we  omit  several  small  towns  situated  on  either 
bank  of  the  Nile,  because  they  no  longer  present  any  re- 
mains of  art  to  connect  them  with  the  period  to  which  our 
retrospect  extends.  In  ascending  the  Thebaid,  however, 
we  are  arrested  by  the  interesting  relics  of  Abydos,  the 
modern  Arabat,  supposed  by  Strabo  to  have  been  the  resi- 
dence of  Memnon  ; although  in  the  days  of  this  geographer 
it  was  already  reduced  to  a paltry  village.  A few  blocks 
and  columns  of  granite  continue  to  assure  the  traveller  that 
the  desolate  region  which  he  has  entered  was  once  the  scene 
of  splendour  and  an  active  population.  A large  building, 
too,  of  the  highest  antiquity,  convinces  him  that  Abydos 
must  have  held  a distinguished  place  among  the  cities  of 
Upper  Egypt.  Mr.  Hamilton  tells  us  that  this  edifice  ap- 
peared entire,  but  was  so  much  choked  up  with  sand  that 
it  was  extremely  difficult  either  to  enter  the  apartments  or 
to  examine  the  architecture.  The  area  which  it  occupied 
was  nearly  a rectangle  of  350  feet  by  150.  The  pillars  were 
conjectured  to  be  about  thirty  feet  in  height ; which  did  not, 
however,  exhibit  any  remarkable  sculptures  or  paintings. 
One  peculiarity  of  this  building  could  not  be  observed  with- 
out interest. — “ From  the  west  point  we  could  enter  into 
seven  chambers  of  similar  dimensions,  measuring  thirty-six 
feet  in  length,  sixteen  feet  and  a half  in  width,  and  five  feet 
six  inches  in  height ; the  only  instance  of  the  kind  I have 
ever  witnessed  of  undoubted  Egyptian  architecture.  The 
arches,  however,  are  not  constructed  on  the  principle  of  the 
arch,  and  cannot  therefore  be  adduced  as  any  evidence  of 
such  principles  having  been  known  to,  and  put  in  practice 

* Leigh,  p.  95 ; Richardson,  vol.  i p.  178 ; Encyclop.  Metropol. 
Egypt. 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


165 


by  tlie  Egyptians.  The  architraves,  or  rather  rafters  of  the 
rooms,  as  well  as  the  upper  layer  of  stones  on  each  side-wall, 
are  cut  out  so  as  to  resemble  an  arched  roof ; and  perhaps 
they  are  thus  executed  in  imitation  of  those  which  the  same 
people  used  to  form  for  the  catacombs  and  sepulchres  which 
they  excavated  in  the  rocks.”* 

Four  hundred  paces  farther  north  are  the  traces  of  an- 
other building,  which  appears  to  have  been  a temple,  though 
little  now  remains  but  the  fragments  of  three  granite  gate- 
ways. In  size  it  has  been  much  inferior  to  the  edifice  just 
described,  being  only  250  feet  in  length,  and  120  feet  wide. 
Such  ruins  seem  to  justify  the  conclusion,  which  has  been 
drawn  by  recent  travellers,  that  Arabat  represents  the  ancient 
Abydos,  and  also  that  the  great  structure  is  the  Memnonium 
celebrated  by  Strabo. 

As  the  sand  continues  to  gain  ground  all  along  the  pre- 
cincts of  the  western  desert,  the  difficulty  of  entering  this 
palace  of  Memnon  is  every  year  increased.  In  1821,  when 
Sir  F.  Henniker  visited  Egypt,  the  external  lineaments  of 
the  building  were  so  entirely  obliterated  that  it  was  not 
easy  to  imagine  a building  could  be  concealed  in  the  spot 
where  he  was  directed  to  seek  for  it.  On  the  roof,  which 
alone  occupies  nearly  as  much  space  as  the  neighbouring 
village,  he  paced  fifty-four  long  steps  on  stones  that  have 
never  yet  been  removed,  though  he  observed  signs  of 
destruction  at  either  end.  There  are  some  small  chambers 
in  the  pile,  in  which  the  colour  of  the  painting  is  so  well 
preserved  that  doubts  immediately  arise  as  to  the  length  of 
the  time  it  has  been  done.  The  best  works  even  of  the 
Venetian  school  betray  their  age  ; but  the  colours,  here 
supposed  to  have  been  in  existence  two  thousand  years 
before  the  time  of  Titian,  are  at  this  moment  as  fresh  as  if 
they  had  been  laid  on  an  hour  ago.  The  stones  of  which 
this  fabric  is  built  measure  in  some  cases  about  twenty-two 
feet  in  length  ; the  span  of  the  arch  is  cut  in  a single  stone  ; 

* Hamilton’s  Egyptiaca,  p.  259.  This  author  remarks,  “ Savary’s 
pompous  account  of  Abydos  is  a fictitious  narrative  of  a place  he  never 
saw,  and  bears  more  resemblance  to  the  remains  at  Dendera  than  to  any 
other  in  Egypt.  It  is  composed  of  the  description  of  this  place  by 
M.  ChevalieT,  Governor  of  Chandernagore,  improved  by  a few  embellish- 
ments of  bis  own  invention. 


160  REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART,  ETC. 

a portico  is  still  visible  ; each  individual  part  is  of  exquisite 
workmanship,  but  badly  put  together.  This  writer  agrees 
with  Mr,  Hamilton  in  the  opinion  that  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians did  not  understand  the  principle  of  the  arch.  One 
chamber,  in  particular,  appears  to  demonstrate  jat  once  their 
intention  and  their  inability, — the  span  of  the  arch  being 
cut  in  two  stones,  each  of  which  bears  an  equal  segment 
of  the  circle.  These  placed  together  would  naturally  have 
fallen,  bui  they  are  upheld  by  a pillar  placed  at  the  point  of 
contact, — an  expedient  which  leaves  no  doubt  that  in  this 
point  of  architectural  invention  the  subjects  of  the  Pha- 
raohs had  not  attained  their  usual  success.  If,  says  Sir 
Frederick,  those  who  raised  the  Pyramids  and  built  Thebes* 
and  elevated  the  obelisks  of  Luxor,  had  been  acquainted 
with  the  principle  of  the  arch,  they  would  have  thrown 
bridges  across  the  Nile,  and  have  erected  to  Isis  and  Osiris 
domes  more  magnificent  than  those  of  St.  Peter’s  and  St. 
Paul’s.* 

It  was  in  one  of  the  inmost  chambers  of  the  larger  edifice 
at  Abydos  that  Mr.  W.  Bankes,  in  1818,  discovered  a large 
hieroglyphical  tablet  containing  a long  series  of  royal  names, 
as  was  evident  from  the  ring,  border,  or,  as  the  French  call 
it,  the  cartouche,  wrhich  surrounds  such  inscriptions.  On 
examination,  it  proved  to  be  a genealogical  table  of  the 
immediate  predecessors  of  Ramesses  the  Great,  the  Sethos 
or  Sethosis  of  Manetho,  the  Sesoosis  of  Diodorus,  and  the 
Sesostris  of  Herodotus.  A careful  comparison  of  it  with 
other  documents  has  enabled  M.  Champollion  to  ascertain, 
with  a considerable  degree  of  probability,  the  period  in  which 
the  sixteenth  and  following  dynasties  mentioned  by  Mane- 
tho must  have  occupied  the  throne.  The  epochs  thus 
determined,  though  still  liable  to  some  objections,  are  sup- 
ported by  so  many  concurrent  and  independent  testimonies 
as  to  warrant  the  expectation,  now  entertained  by  many 
chronologists,  that  they  will  ultimately  be  established  beyond 
the  reach  of  controversy.! 

Dendera,  which  is  commonly  identified  wdth  the  ancient 
Tentyra,  presents  some  very  striking  examples  of  that 

* A Visit  to  Egypt,  p.  112. 

t Encyclopaedia' Metropolitan^  article  Egypt. 


168 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


sumptuous  architecture  which  the  people  of  Egypt  lavished 
upon  their  places  of  worship.  The  gateway  in  particular 
which  leads  to  the  temple  of  Isis  has  excited  universal 
admiration.  Each  front,  as  well  as  the  interior,  is  covered 
with  sculptured  hieroglyphics,  which  are  executed  with  a 
richness,  a precision,  elegance  of  form,  and  variety  of  orna- 
ment, surpassing  in  many  respects  the  similar  edifices 
which  are  found  at  Thebes  and  Philoe.  The  height  is 
forty-two  feet,  the  width  thirty-three,  and  the  depth  seven- 
teen. “ Advancing  along  the  brick  ruins,”  says  Dr.  Rich- 
ardson, “ we  came  to  an  elegant  gateway  or  propylon,  which 
is  also  of  sandstone,  neatly  hewn,  and  completely  covered 
with  sculpture  and  hieroglyphics  remarkably  well  cut. 
Immediately  over  the  centre  of  the  doorway  is  the  beautiful 
Egyptian  ornament  usually  called  the  globe,  with  serpent 
and  wings,  emblematical  of  the  glorious  sun  poised  in  the 
airy  firmament  of  heaven,  supported  and  directed  in  his 
course  by  the  eternal  wisdom  of  the  Deity.  The  sublime 
phraseology  of  Scripture,  ‘ the  Sun  of  Righteousness  shall 
rise  with  healing  on  his  wings,’  could  not  be  more  emphati- 
cally or  more  accurately  represented  to  the  human  eye  than 
by  this  elegant  device.”  The  temple  itself  still  retains  all 
its  original  magnificence.  The  centuries  which  have 
elapsed  since  the  era  of  its  foundat  ion  have  scarcely  affected 
it  in  any  important  part,  and  have  impressed  upon  it  no 
greater  appearance  of  age  than  serves  to  render  it  more 
venerable  and  imposing.  To  Mr.  Hamilton,  who  had  seen 
innumerable  monuments  of  the  same  kind  throughout  the 
Thebaid,  it  seemed  as  if  he  were  now  witnessing  the 
highest  degree  of  architectural  excellence  that  had  ever 
been  attained  on  the  borders  of  the  Nile.  Here  were  con- 
centrated the  united  labours  of  ages,  and  the  last  effort  of 
human  art  and  industry,  in  that  uniform  line  of  construction 
which  had  been  adopted  in  the  earliest  times. 

The  portico  consists  of  twenty-four  columns,  in  three 
rows  ; each  above  twenty-two  feet  in  circumference,  thirty- 
two  feet  high,  and  covered  with  hierogtyphics.  On  the 
front,  Isis  is  in  general  the  principal  figure  to  whom  offer- 
ings are  made.  On  the  architrave  are  represented  two  pro- 
cessions of  men  and  women  bringing  to  their  goddess,  and 
to  Osiris,  who  is  sitting  behind  her,  globes  encompassed 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


169 


with  cows’  horns,  mitred  snakes,  lotus  flowers,  vases,  little 
boats,  graduated  staffs,  and  other  instruments  of  their  em- 
blematical worship.  The  interior  of  the  pronaos  is  adorned 
with  sculptures,  most  of  them  preserving  part  of  the  paint 
with  which  they  have  been  covered.  Those  on  the  ceiling 
are  peculiarly  rich  and  varied,  all  illustrative  of  the  union 
between  the  astronomical  and  religious  creeds  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians ; yet,  though  each  separate  figure  is  well  pre- 
served and  perfectly  intelligible,  we  must  be  more  intimately 
acquainted  with  the  real  principles  of  the  sciences,  as  they 
were  then  taught before  we  can  undertake  to  explain  the 
signs  in  which  they  were  imbodied. 

The  sekos,  or  interior  of  the  temple,  consists  of  several 
apartments,  all  the  walls  and  ceilings  of  which  are  in  the 
same  way  covered  with  religious  and  astronomical  repre- 
sentations. The  roofs,  as  is  usual  in  Egypt,  are  flat,  formed 
of  oblong  masses  of  stone  resting  on  the  side-walls ; and 
when  the  distance  betwreen  these  is  too  great,  one  or  two 
rows  of  columns  are  carried  down  the  middle  of  the  apart- 
ment, on  which  the  huge  flags  are  supported.  The  capitals 
of  these  columns  are  very  richly  ornamented  with  the 
budding  lotus,  the  stalks  of  which,  being  extended  a certain 
way  down  the  shaft,  give  it  the  appearance  of  being  fluted, 
or  rather  scalloped.  The  rooms  have  been  lighted  by 
small  perpendicular  holes  cut  in  the  ceiling,  and,  where  it 
was  possible  to  introduce  them,  by  oblique  ones  in  the  sides. 
But  some  idea  might  be  formed  of  the  perpetual  gloom  in 
which  the  apartments  on  the  ground-floor  of  the  sekos 
must  have  been  buried,  from  the  fact,  that  where  no  side- 
light could  be  introduced,  all  they  received  was  communi- 
cated from  the  apartment  above  ; so  that,  notwithstanding 
the  cloudless  sky  and  the  brilliant  colours  on  the  walls,  the 
place  must  have  been  always  well  calculated  for  the  mys- 
terious practices  of  the  religion  to  which  it  was  consecrated. 
On  one  corner  of  the  roof  there  was  a chapel  or  temple 
twenty  feet  square,  consisting  of  twelve  columns,  exactly 
similar  in  figure  and  proportions  to  those  of  the  pronaos. 
The  use  to  which  it  may  have  been  applied  must  probably 
remain  one  of  the  secrets  connected  with  the  mystical  and 
sometimes  cruel  service  in  which  the  priests  of  Isis  were 
employed,  though  it  is  by  no  means  unlikely  that  it  was 
meant  as  a repository  for  books  and  instruments  collected 


170 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


for  the  more  innocent  and  exalted  pursuits  of  practical 
astronomy. 

Towards  the  eastern  end  of  the  roof  are  two  separate 
sets  of  apartments,  one  on  the  north  and  the  other  on  the 
south  side  of  it.  The  latter  consists  of  three  rooms,  the 
first  of  which  is  only  remarkable  for  the  representation  of 
a human  sacrifice.  A man,  with  the  head  and  ears  of  an 
ass,  is  kneeling  on  the  ground,  tied  with  his  hands  behind 
him  to  a tree,  with  two  knives  driven  into  his  forehead,  two 
in  the  shoulders,  one  in  his  body,  and  another  in  the  thigh. 
Five  priests,  with  the  heads  of  dogs,  and  hawks,  are  in  a 
row  behind  him,  each  having  a knife  in  his  hand.  The 
deity,  before  whom  the  mactation  is  about  to  be  performed, 
is  clothed  in  a long  white  garment,  and  holds  in  his  right 
hand  the  crook  or  crosier,  with  the  flagellum. 

The  ceiling  of  the  next  room  is  divided  into  two  com- 
partments by  a figure  of  Isis  in  very  high  relief.  In  one  of 
them  is  the  circular  zodiac  ; in  the  other  a variety  of  boats 
with  four  or  five  human  figures  in  each  ; one  of  whom  is 
in  the  act  of  spearing  a large  egg,  while  others  are  stamping 
with  their  feet  upon  the  victims  of  their  fury,  among  which 
are  several  human  beings.  Near  this  scene  a large  lion, 
supported  by  four  dog-headed  figures,  each  carrying  a knife, 
may  be  regarded  as  an  additional  type  of  the  sanguinary 
purposes  for  which  the  apartment  was  used.  The  walls  of 
the  third  room  are  covered  with  the  several  representations 
of  a person, — first  at  the  point  of  death  lying  on  a couch  ; 
then  stretched  out  lifeless  upon  a bier ; and  finally,  after 
being  embalmed.  As  these  sculptures  are  much  more 
defaced  than  the  others,  it  is  very  difficult  to  decipher  their 
details.  But  the  ensigns  of  royalty  and  the  presence  of  the 
deity  are,  in  general,  clearly  discernible  ; on  which  account 
it  is  not  improbable  that  the  scenes  may  bear  an  allusion  to 
the  death  of  some  sovereign  of  the  country  who  wTas 
honoured  as  the  patron  of  religion  or  of  science. 

The  western  wall  of  the  great  temple  is  particularly 
interesting  for  the  extreme  elegance  of  the  sculpture, — as 
far  as  Egyptian  sculpture  is  susceptible  of  that  character, 
— for  the  richness  of  the  dresses  in  w^hich  the  priests  and 
deities  are  arrayed,  and  even  of  the  chairs  in  which  the 
latter  are  seated.  Here  are  frequent  representations  of  men 
who  seem  prepared  for  slaughter  or  just  going  to  be  put  t? 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


1/1 


death.  On  these  occasions  one  or  more  appear,  with  their 
hands  or  legs  tied  to  the  trunk  of  a tree,  in  the  most  painful 
and  distorted  attitudes. 

The  grand  projecting  cornice,  one  of  the  most  imposing 
features  of  Egyptian  architecture,  is  continued  the  whole 
length  of  this  and  the  other  walls  ; a moulding  separates  it 
from  the  architrave  ; and,  being  carried  down  the  angles 
of  thg  building,  gives  to  the  whole  a solid  finished  appear- 
ance, combined  with  symmetry  of  parts  and  chasteness  of 
ornament. 

In  If'small  chapel  behind  the  temple,  the  cow  and  the 
hawk  seem  to  have  been  particularly  worshipped,  as  priests 
are  frequently  seen  kneeling  before  them  presenting  sacri- 
fices and  offerings.  In  the  centre  of  the  ceiling  is  the  same 
front  face  of  Isis  in  high  relief,  illuminated,  as  it  were,  by  a 
body  of  rays  issuing  from  the  mouth  of  the  same  long  figure, 
which,  in  the  other  temples,  appears  to  encircle  the 
heavenly  bodies.  About  two  hundred  yards  eastward  from 
this  chapel  is  a propylon  of  small  dimensions,  resembling 
in  form  that  which  conducts  to  the  great  temple,  and,  like  it, 
built  in  a line  with  the  wall  which  surrounds  the  sacred 
enclosure.  Among  the  sculptures  on  it,  which  appear  of 
the  same  style  but  less  finished  than  those  on  the  large 
temple,  little  more  is  worthy  of  notice  than  the  frequent 
exhibition  of  human  slaughter  by  men  or  by  lions.  Still 
farther  towards  the  east  there  is  another  propylon,  equally 
well  preserved  with  the  rest,  about  forty  feet  in  height,  and 
twenty  feet  square  at  the  base.  Among  the  sacred  figures 
on  this  building  is  an  Isis  pointing  with  a reed  to  a gradu- 
ated staff  held  by  another  figure  of  the  same  deity,  from 
which  are  suspended  scales  containing  water  animals  ; the 
whole  group,  perhaps,  being  an  emblem  of  her  influence 
over  the  Nile  in  regulating  its  periodical  inundations. 

The  enclosure  within  which  all  the  sacred  edifices  of 
Dendera,  with  the  exception  of  the  last  propylon,  are  con- 
tained, is  a square  of  about  a thousand  feet.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  a wall  which,  where  best  preserved,  is  thirty-five 
feet  in  height,  and  fifteen  feet  thick.  The  crude  bricks  of 
which  it  is  built  were  found  to  be  fifteen  inches  and  a half 
long,  seven  and  three-quarters  broad,  and  four  inches  and 
three-quarters  thick.  There  have  been  at  certain  intervals 


172 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART  • 


projections  of  the  wall  or  towers  ; but  it  is  difficult  to  say 
whether  for  purposes  of  defence  or  strength.* 

Dr.  Richardson  observes,  in  reference  to  the  sculptures 
on  the  temple  of  Dendera,  that  “ the  female  figures  are  so 
extremely  well  executed  that  they  do  all  but  speak,  and  have 
a mildness  of  feature  and  expression  that  never  was  sur- 
passed.” Every  thing  around  appears  to  be  in  motion,  and 
to  discharge  the  functions  of  a living  creature  ; being,  at 
the  same  time,  so  different  from  what  is  ever  seen  in  Europe 
that  the  mind  is  astonished,  and  feels  as  if  absolutely  intro- 
duced to  personages  of  the  remotest  ages,  to  converse  with 
them,  and  to  witness  the  ceremonies  by  which  they  delighted 
to  honour  their  gods.  The  temple  at  Dendera,  says  this 
author,  is  by  far  the  finest  in  Egypt ; the  devices  have  more 
soul  in  them  ; and  the  execution  is  of  the"  choicest  descrip- 
tion. After  walking  round  it,  and  considering  its  peculiar 
beauty  and  ornament,  one  is  astonished  to  find  that  there  is 
no  exact  transcript  or  model  of  it  in  England. 

France  has  done  much  to  make  the  world  acquainted  with 
Egyptian  antiquities,  and  had  the  agents  she  employed 
performed  their  work  with  fidelity,  would  have  been  entitled 
to  our  warmest  gratitude ; but  the  rubbish  was  never 
cleared  away  from  the  walls  or  from  the  interior  of  this 
temple  ; and  being  unable  to  give  the  whole  of  any  one 
building,  they  represent  it  in  patches,  and  those  so  incor- 
rectly, that  no  person,  on  examining  them,  can  be  sure 
whether  he  is  studying  the  compositions  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians  or  of  the  modem  French  ; so  that  no  part  of 
their  work  can  serve  as  an  unsuspected  guide  to  the  student 
of  antiquities  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile. 

As  Dr.  Richardson  is  one  of  the  latest  travellers  who  have 
published  upon  Egypt,  we  are  induced  to  give  his  description 
of  the  inside  of  the  magnificent  fane  now  under  our  con- 
sideration. “ The  first  apartment  has  three  columns  on 
each  hand,  all  covered  with  sculpture  and  hieroglyphics, 
and  surmounted  at  the  top,  like  those  already  mentioned, 
with  the  head  of  Isis  Quadrifrons.  The  w alls  behind  the 
col  mans  are  equally  enriched,  so  that  there  is  not  a spot  the 
eye  can  rest  on  but  addresses  to  the  mind  a tale  of  interest 
and  wonder  *,  though  no  man  can  read  or  unfold  its  precise 


Hamilton’s  Egyptiaea,  p.  196-204. 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


173 


meaning,  yet  each  forms  to  himself  some  conjecture  of  the 
story,  and  is  pleased  with  the  constant  exercise  of  his  mind. 
Passing  on  we  entered  another  apartment  which  has  no 
columns,  but  the  walls  are  decorated  in  the  same  manner  $ 
then  we  moved  into  a third,  which  was  equally  so,  and  from 
thence  passages  go  off  to  small  handsome  side-chambers, 
equally  ornamented  with  figures,  and  stars,  and  hiero- 
glyphics, and  a sort  of  chain-work  along  the  ceiling,  of  a blue 
colour.  The  passage  to  the  right  leads  to  an  easy  hand- 
some stair,  by  which  to  ascend  to  the  top  of  the  building  ; 
we  continued  our  way,  however,  straight  forward,  and 
entered  another  chamber,  in  the  centre  of  which  Stands  the 
sanctuary,  or  holiest  apartment,  all  of  them  rich  in  sculpture 
and  hieroglyphics.  Never  did  I see  a greater  field  for 
thought  or  reflection,  and  never  did  I regret  more  the  want 
of  time  than  in  visiting  the  superb  temple  of  Dendera.”* 
The  enthusiasm  of  a Frenchman  seeks  expressions  still 
more  elevated  to  give  utterance  to  his  feelings.  “ I wish,” 
exclaims  Denon,  “ that  I could  here  transfuse  into  the  soul 
of  my  reader  the  sensations  which  I experienced.  I was 
too  much  lost  in  astonishment  to  be  capable  of  cool  judg- 
ment ; all  that  I had  hitherto  seen  served  here  but  to  fix 
my  admiration.  This  monument  seemed  to  me  to  have  the 
primitive  character  of  a temple  in  the  highest  perfection. 
I felt  that  I was  in  the  sanctuary  of  the  arts  and  sciences. 
How  many  periods  presented  themselves  to  my  imagination 
at  the  sight  of  such  an  edifice  ! How  many  ages  of  crea- 
tive ingenuity  were  requisite  to  bring  a nation  to  such  a 
degree  of  perfection  and  sublimity  in  the  arts ; and  how 
many  more  of  oblivion  to  cause  these  mighty  productions  to 
be  forgotten,  and  to  bring  back  the  human  race  to  the  state 
of  nature  in  which  I found  them  on  this  very  spot ! Never 
was  there  a place  which  concentred  in  a narrower  compass 
the  well-marked  memorial  of  a progressive  lapse  of  ages. 
"What  unceasing  power,  what  riches,  what  abundance,  what 
superfluity  of  means  must  a government  possess  which 
could  erect  such  an  edifice,  and  find  within  itself  artists 
capable  of  conceiving  and  executing  the  design  of  decorating 
and  enriching  it  with  every  thing  that  speaks  to  the  eye  and 
the  understanding  ! Never  did  the  labour  of  man  show  me 


* Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  205. 

P 2 


174 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  AFT 


the  human  race  in  such  a splendid  point  of  view  ; in  the 
ruins  of  Tentyra  the  Egyptians  appeared  to  me  giants.  I 
wished  to  take  every  thing  on  paper,  but  I could  hardly 
venture  to  begin  the  work  : I felt  that,  not  being  able  to 
raise  my  powers  to  the  height  which  was  before  my  admiring 
eyes,  I could  only  show  the  imperfection  of  the  imitative 
art.  I was  confused  by  the  multiplicity  of  objects,  aston- 
ished by  their  novelty,  and  tormented  by  the  fear  of  never 
again  visiting  them.  On  casting  my  eyes  on  the  ceilings, 
I had  perceived  zodiacs,  planetary  systems,  and  celestial 
hemispheres,  represented  in  a tasteful  arrangement : I saw 
that  the  Supreme  Being,  the  First  Cause,  was  every  where 
depicted  by  the  emblems  of  his  attributes  ; and  I had  but 
a few  hours  to  examine,  to  reflect  on,  and  to  copy  what  it 
had  been  the  labour  of  ages  to  conceive,  to  put  together, 
and  to  decorate.  With  my  pencil  in  my  hand,  I passed 
from  object  to  object,  distracted  from  one  by  the  inviting 
appearance  of  the  next,  constantly  attracted  to  new  sub- 
jects, and  again  torn  from  them.  I wanted  eyes,  hands, 
and  intelligence  vast  enough  to  see,  copy,  and  reduce  to 
some  order  the  multitude  of  striking  images  which  pre- 
sented themselves  before  me.  I was  ashamed  at  repre- 
senting such  sublime  objects  by  such  imperfect  designs,  but 
I wished  to  preserve  some  memorial  of  the  sensations  which 
I here  experienced,  and  I feared  that  Tentyra  would  escape 
from  me  for  ever  ; so  that  my  regret  equalled  my  present 
enjoyment.  I had  just  discovered,  in  a small  apartment,  a 
celestial  planisphere,  -when  the  last  rays  of  daylight  made 
me  perceive  that  I was  alone  here,  along  with  my  kind  and 
obliging  friend  General  Beliard,  who,  after  having  satisfied 
his  own  curiosity,  would  not  leave  me  unprotected  in  so 
deserted  a spot.  We  galloped  on  and  regained  our  division. 
— In  the  evening,  Latournerie,  an  officer  of  brilliant  courage 
and  of  a refined  and  delicate  taste,  said  to  me,  ‘ Since  I 
have  been  in  Egypt  deceived  in  all  my  expectations,  I have 
been  constantly  heavy  and  melancholy,  but  Tentyra  has 
cured  me : what  I have  seen  this  day  has  repaid  me  for  all 
my  fatigues  ; whatever  happens  to  me  in  the  event  of  this 
expedition,  I shall  all  my  life  congratulate  myself  at  having 
embarked  in  it,  to  have  obtained  the  remembrance  of  this 
day,  which  I shall  preserve  all  the  rest  of  my  existence.’  ”* 


Travels  in  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  vol.  i.  p.  295. 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


175 


This  extract  will  afford  the  means  of  judging  how  far 
the  members  of  the  French  Institute  had  an  opportunity 
of  examining  the  buildings  of  which  they  have  undertaken 
to  give  at  once  a description  and  a copy.  Denon  himself 
admits,  that  as  their  troops  were  engaged  in  pursuit  of  an 
enemy  constantly  mounted,  the  movements  of  the  division 
were  invariably  both  unforeseen  and  complicated ; and  con- 
sequently that  he  was  sometimes  obliged  to  pass  rapidly 
over  the  most  interesting  monuments,  and  at  other  times 
to  stop  where  there  was  nothing  to  observe.* 

We  must  not,  however,  omit  to  mention  that  at  a subse- 
quent period  Denon  returned  to  this  interesting  scene  of 
antiquities,  when  he  copied  the  zodiac  and  the  celestial 
planisphere  which  have  excited  so  much  discussion  among 
the  philosophers  of  Europe.  He  copied  also  the  rest  of  the 
ceiling,  which  is  divided  into  two  equal  parts  by  a large 
figure  that  seems  to  be  an  Isis ; her  feet  resting  upon 
earth,  her  arms  extended  towards  heaven,  while  she 
appears  to  occupy  all  the  space  between.  In  another  part 
of  the  ceiling  is  a large  figure,  probably  representing 
heaven  or  the  year,  with  its  hands  and  feet  on  the  same 
level,  and  unfolding,  with  the  curvature  of  the  body,  four- 
teen globes,  placed  on  as  many  boats,  distributed  over  seven 
beads  or  zones,  separated  from  each  other  by  numberless 
hieroglyphics,  but  too  much  covered  with  stalactites  and 
smoke  to  allow  of  its  being  taken. 

All  the  world  knows  that  the  French  mathematicians  dis- 
covered in  these  astronomical  drawings,  compared  with  the 
corresponding  emblems  at  Esneh,  certain  proofs  of  an  an- 
tiquity usually  thought  inconsistent  with  the  chronology 
of  the  sacred  writings.  Signor  Visconti  published  some 
calculations  on  the  subject,  which  drew  from  M.  de  Lalande 
a series  of  remarks,  inserted  in  the  “ Connaissances  des 
Terns”  for  the  year  1807.  These  authors  agree  in  the  con- 
clusion that  the  zodiac  of  Dendera  must  have  been  formed 
in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era,  or,  at  latest,  before 
the  year  132  of  our  epoch.  Mr.  Hamilton  discovered  two 
facts  which  tended  greatly  to  confirm  the  opinion  now 
stated  ; the  one  fixing  the  reign  of  Tiberius  as  the  period 
to  which  may  be  assigned  the  construction  of  the  building ; 


* Preface,  p.  iii. 


176 


REMAIN'S  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


the  other  affording  the  most  satisfactory  proof  that  the 
summer  solstice  was  in  Cancer  when  the  zodiac  was  carved; 
whence  it  follow's  that  the  date  in  question  could  not  be  far 
removed  from  the  birth  of  Christ. 

The  coincidence  here  between  the  deductions  of  the  as- 
tronomer and  the  observations  of  the  traveller  is  very  striking, 
and  strengthens  our  confidence  in  the  accuracy  of  both. 
But  the  speculations  which  follow  on  the  celestial  plani- 
sphere, as  they  assume  a wider  range,  have  not  produced 
the  same  unanimity.  From  certain  figures  which  are  in- 
troduced, De  Lalande  is  of  opinion  that  it  must  have  been 
composed  at  the  time  when  the  summer  solstice  was  in  the 
middle  of  the  sign  Cancer,  or,  in  other  words,  about  three 
thousand  years  ago  ; and  he  refers  his  readers  to  the  argu- 
ments he  has  adduced  in  another  work,  to  prove  that  it  was 
about  the  period  just  mentioned  when  the  system  of  the 
heavens  was  constructed,  in  which  Eudoxus,  eight  hundred 
years  afterward,  and  Aratus  his  follower,  described  the 
sphere.  While,  however,  he  attributes  this  antiquity  to 
the  Dendera  zodiac,  he  has  no  hesitation  in  allowing  the 
probability  that  the  temple  itself  within  which  it  is  engraved 
may  be  of  a much  later  date. 

From  another  process  of  calculation  into  which  our 
limits  forbid  us  to  enter,  Mr.  Hamilton  infers  that  we  can- 
not assign  to  this  astronomical  picture  an  antiquity  less 
remote  than  four  thousand  five  hundred  years,  the  period 
the  sun  must  have  taken  to  pass  through  the  two  adjacent 
signs  of  Leo  and  Cancer,  according  to  the  annual  precession 
of  the  equinoxes.  He  adds,  indeed,  in  a note,  that  if  we 
place  the  sun  in  the  middle  of  Leo  at  the  time  of  the  sol- 
stice when  this  zodiac  was  constructed,  we  shall  then 
assign  to  it  only  the  antiquity  of  three  thousand  twro  hun- 
dred years ; that  is,  fourteen  hundred  years  before  the 
Christian  era.  This  would  leave  a space  amply  sufficient 
for  the  acquisition  of  astronomical  knowledge  between  the 
deluge  and  the  date  specified.* 

The  reasonings  and  conclusions  of  which  we  have  now 
presented  an  outline  have  drawn  upon  their  authors  a load 
of  calumny  by  no  means  justifiable  on  any  of  the  grounds 
which  a generous  and  candid  criticism  is  wont  to  assume. 


Hamilton’s  Egyptiaca,  p.  215. 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


177 


The  positions,  indeed,  which  they  laboured  to  establisn, 
are  liable  to  attack  from  various  quarters ; and  especially 
because  these  are  founded  on  a very  incorrect  copy  of  the 
astronomical  sculptures  which  they  undertook  to  explain. 
Denon  appears  to  have  spent  but  one  day  amid  the  ruins 
of  Dendera,  on  a task  which  would  have  required  the  unin- 
terrupted employment  of  several  weeks ; and  accordingly 
it  is  now  nowhere  denied  that  his  drawings  do  not  exhibit 
an  exact  representation  either  of  the  zodiac  or  of  the  plani- 
sphere. Dr.  Richardson,  who  had  an  opportunity  of  com- 
paring the  French  work  with- the  original,  admits  the  ele- 
gance of  the  execution,  but  declares  that  “ it  is  perfectly 
foppish,  and  not  the  least  Egyptian  in  its  style  or  manner. 
It  is,  besides,  extremely  ineorrect  both  in  the  drawing  of 
the  figures  and  in  the  hieroglyphics,  as  well  as  in  the 
number  of  stars  which  accompany  them ; which  last  are 
both  fewer  in  number  and  differently  arranged  from  what 
we  found  them  to  be  in  the  ceiling.  In  point  of  sentiment 
it  is  equally  inaccurate  ; the  several  authors  having  im- 
parted to  the  human  figure  an  insipid  and  babyish  expres- 
sion, which  one  would  not  have  expected  from  the  com- 
panions of  Napoleon;  and  which  is  as  foreign  to  the 
Egyptian  character  as  the  aspect  of  a child  or  an  insipid 
coxcomb  is  to  that  of  the  Theseus,  the  Memnon,  or  the 
Apollo.”* 

We  cannot,  however,  agree  with  this  facetious  traveller 
that  the  ceiling  at  Dendera  has  no  connexion  whatever  with 
astronomy,  but  is  merely  a congregation  of  gods  and  god- 
desses, mythological  beings,  and  religious  processions. 
Perhaps  there  may  be  a scheme  of  general  physics  involved 
in  the  multifarious  emblems  displayed  in  the  temple, — a 
theory  of  production  and  reproduction,  of  which  the  princi- 
ples continue  unknown, — but  it  is  still  more  probable  that 
the  veneration  shown  by  all  ancient  nations  to  the  host 
of  heaven,  and  an  effort  to  trace  their  paths  or  positions  in 
the  immense  regions  of  space,  called  forth  the  genius  of  the 
artist  and  the  wealth  of  the  pious  in  the  ornaments  of 
Tentyra. 

Our  object  in  this  chapter,  we  have  already  remarked,  is 
not  to  illustrate  the  opinions  of  the  Egyptians,  but  to  pre- 


Travels,  toI.  1.  p.  204. 


178 


fcfelrfAiNS  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


simt  a record  of  their  taste  and  ability  in  the  fine  arts.  Fof 
this  purpose  no  portion  of  their  labours,  since  Thebes  was 
trodden  under  foot  and  the  Labyrinth  disappeared,  could  bo 
more  happily  selected  than  the  ruins  of  Dendera.  Its 
columns,  statues,  sculptures,  and  hieroglyphics  are  the 
admiration  of  the  most  refined  people  at  present  on  the  face 
of  the  earth.  Travellers  who  can  agree  in  nothing  else 
unite  in  extolling  the  wonders  of  the  temple  and  portico. 
The  ardent  Frenchman  and  the  more  phlegmatic  native 
of  Britain  are  equally  enthusiastic  in  their  expressions 
of  delight  and  astonishment.  Even  Belzoni,  who  was 
accustomed  to  the  grandest  sights,  acknowledges  that  the 
majestic  appearance  of  the  temple  and  the  variety  of  its 
ornaments  had  such  an  effect  on  him,  that  he  seated  him- 
self on  the  ground,  and  for  a considerable  time  was  lost  in 
•admiration.* 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  monuments  of  Tentyra 
do  not  possess  the  same  degree  of  antiquity  which  belongs 
to  the  buildings  of  Thebes.  As  a proof  of  this,  it  is  men- 
tioned that  the  basis  of  the  large  temple  in  the  former 
place  stands  upon  a terrace  which  is  still  fifteen  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  neighbouring  country ; while  similar  ter- 
races at  Thebes  are  only  on  a level  with  the  surface  of  the 

* Narrative,  vol.  i.  p.  52.  When  at  Dendera  Mrs.  Elwood  relates 
that  “here  we  in  vain  searched  for  the  famous  circular  zodiac,  which, 
by  the  descriptions  of  the  temple  we  had  read,  we  were  aware  must  be 
in  tilis  neighbourhood  ; but,  after  a great  number  of  pantomimic  signs 
had  passed  between  us,  the  Arab  guide  made  us  understand  it  had  been 
taken  away  ; and  this  we  subsequently  found  was  positively  the  case,  a 
Frenchman  having  carried  it  off  to  Cairo  ! What  a Goth  ! to  dismantle 
this  majestic  building  for  the  purpose,  in  a manner  more  rode  than  even 
the  Turks  themselves  ! We,  however,  saw  the  spot  where— alas  ! that 
I should  say — it  had  been.  C observed  that  the  figures  in  the  tem- 

ple closely  resembled  those  he  had  seen  in  India ; and  in  fact  it  was 
here  that  the  sepoys,  when  brought  into  Egypt,  prostrated  themselves 
in  adoration,  thinking  they  saw  their  own  deities  before  them,  which 
proves  there  is  a strong  affinity  between  tbe  worship  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians  and  that  of  the  modern  Hindoos.” — Narrative  of  a Journey 
Overland  from  England  to  India , vol.  i.  p.  213. 

It  is  generally  known  that  the  zodiac,  the  removal  of  which  occasioned 
bo  much  indignation  to  this  lady,  has  been  some  time  in  Paris.  The 
rivalry  which  animates  the  tourists  and  philosophers  of  France  and 
England  threatens  to  inflict  upon  the  interesting  remains  of  Egyptian 
art  a greater  injury  than  they  have  sustained  from  the  ravages  of  two 
thousand  years,  and  from  the  assaults  of  all  the  barbarian  conquerors 
■who  have  possessed  the  country  from  Nebuchadnezzar  to  Moham- 
med Ali. 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


179 


Nile,  aVve  which  they  were,  beyond  a doubt,  once  greatly 
elevated.  Visconti,  therefore,  and  after  him  Belzoni,  inferred 
that  the'  temple  at  Dendera  was  not  older  than  the  time 
of  the  Ptolemies,  or  perhaps  that  of  the  Romans ; but 
Jollois,  on  the  contrary,  expresses  his  firm  conviction,  that 
from  the  style  and  execution  of  the  sculptures,  they  cannot 
have  been  made  subsequently  to  the  invasion  under  Cam- 
byscs,  and  were  probably  at  least  as  old  as . the  tomb 
of  Psammis,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Josiah,  king  of 
Judah. 

It  is  obvious,  when  we  reflect  that  Tentyrawas  built  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  river,  the  argument  drawn 
from  the  elevation  of  the  soil  occasioned  by  the  annual 
flood,  docs  not  apply  to  the  question  at  issue  ; while  the 
inscriptions  found  on  many  of  the  ancient  monuments  of 
Egypt  cannot  be  understood  in  any  other  sense  than  as  a 
re  dedication  of  the  fabric  to  a popular  monarch,-— a prac- 
tice sanctioned  by  the  usage  of  all  ages.  But,  on  other 
accounts,  we  concur  in  the  views  of  Belzoni  in  regard  to 
the  date  of  the  principal  edifices  now  under  consideration. 

Leaving  Dendera,  however,  w'e  proceed  to  Thebes,  the 
remains  of  which,  though  not  possessed  of  greater  elegance 
and  beauty,  are  usually  regarded  with  a larger  share  of 
interest.  The  vast  extent  of  the  ruins  is  itself  a subject 
of  profound  attention.  The  ancient  city  extended  from  the 
ridge  of  mountains  which  skirt  the  Arabian  Desert  to  the 
similar  elevation  which  bounds  the  valley  of  the  Nile  on 
the  west,  being  in  circumference  not  less  than  twenty-seven 
miles.  But  its  actual  situation  may  perhaps  be  more  suc- 
cessfully represented  to  the  fancy  by  the  descriptions  of 
those  who  have  recently  examined  it,  and  whoso  first  irn- 
pressions,  though  recorded  in  language  which  may  seem 
inflated,  supply,  it  is  probable,  a faithful  picture  of  the 
manifest  desolation  for  which  alone  it  is  now  celebrated. 
The  following  paragraph,  extracted  from  the  wrork  of  Denon, 
the  friend  and  companion  of  Buonaparte,  is  sufficiently 
striking : — 

“At  nine  o’clock,  in  making  a sharp  turn  round  a pro- 
jecting point,  wre  discovered  all  at  once  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Thebes  in  its  whole  extent.  This  celebrated  city,  the  size 
of  which  Homer  has  characterized  with  the  single  expres- 
sion of  thp  hundred-gated , — a boasting  and  poetical  phrasq 


180 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


which  has  been  repeated  with  so  much  confidence  for  so 
many  centuries ; — this  illustrious  city,  described  in  a few 
pages  dictated  to  Herodotus  by  Egyptian  priests,  that  have 
since  been  copied  by  every  historian, — celebrated  by  the 
number  of  its  kings,  whose  wisdom  had  raised  them  to  the 
rank  of  gods, — by  laws  which  have  been  revered  without 
being  promulgated, — by  science,  involved  in  pompous  and 
enigmatical  inscriptions, — the  first  monuments  of  ancient 
learning  which  are  still  spared  by  the  hand  of  time ; — this 
abandoned  sanctuary,  surrounded  with  barbarism,  and  again 
restored  to  the  desert  from  which  it  had  been  drawn  forth, 
— enveloped  in  the  veil  of  mystery  and  the  obscurity  of 
ages,  whereby  even  its  own  colossal  monuments  are  mag- 
nified to  the  imagination, — still  impressed  the  mind  with 
such  gigantic  phantoms  that  the  whole  army,  suddenly  and 
with  one  accord,  stood  in  amazement  at  the  sight  of  its 
scattered  ruins,  and  clapped  their  hands  with  delight,  as  if 
the  end  and  object  of  their  glorious  toils,  and  the  complete 
conquest  of  Egypt  were  accomplished  and  secured  by  taking 
possession  of  the  splendid  remains  of  this  ancient  me- 
tropolis.”* 

Another  traveller,  less  enthusiastic  than  Denon,  describes 
the  effect  of  a first  sight  in  the  following  terms  : — “While 
I was  leisurely  travelling  along,  thinking  only  of  our  arrival 
at  Luxor,  one  of  the  party  who  had  preceded  us  called  to 
me  from  a rising  ground  to  turn  to  the  left : and  having 
gone  a few  yards  off  the  road,  I beheld  unexpectedly  the 
temple  of  Kamac.  It  was  long  after  I reached  my  tent  ere 
I recovered  from  the  bewilderment  into  which  the  view  of 
these  stupendous  ruins  had  thrown  me.  No  one  who  has 
not  seen  them  can  understand  the  awe  and  admiration  they 
excite  even  in  unscientific  beholders.  When  I compare 
the  descriptions  of  Denon  and  Hamilton  I find  them  essen- 
tially correct,  yet  without  giving  me  any  adequate  idea  of 
the  glorious  reality.  They  fail  in  describing  what  has 
never  been,  and  which,  I think,  never  can  be,  described.  No 
words  can  impart  a perception  of  the  profusion  of  pillars, 
standing,  prostrate,  inclining  against  each  other,  broken 
and  whole.  Stones  of  a gigantic  size  propped  up  by  pillars, 
and  pillars  again  resting  upon  stones  which  appear  ready 

* Travels  in  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  vol.  i.  p 3. 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


181 


to  crush  the  gazer  under  their  sudden  fall ; yet,  on  a second 
view,  he  is  convinced  that  nothing  but  an  earthquake  could 
move  them  ; all  these  pillars,  covered  with  sculpture,  per* 
haps  three  thousand  years  old,  though  fresh  as  if  finished 
but  yesterday, — not  of  grotesque  and  hideous  objects,  such 
as  we  are  accustomed  to  associate  with  ideas  of  Egyptian 
mythology,  but  many  of  the  figures  of  gods,  warriors,  and 
horses,  much  larger  than  life,  yet  exhibiting  surpassing 
beauty  and  grace.”* 

The  modem  Egyptians,  either  with  the  view  of  obtain* 
ing  materials  at  little  expense  of  labour,  or  in  order  that 
their  hovels  might  be  secure  from  the  periodical  inundations 
of  the  river,  are  commonly  found  to  have  built  their  villages 
on  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  temple  or  palace,  even  on  the 
very  summit  of  the  roof  and  most  elevated  part  of  the  walls. 
Hence  the  grandeur  of  Thebes  must  now  be  traced  in  four 
small  towns  or  hamlets, — Luxor,  Kamac,  Medinet  Abou, 
and  Gornoo.  Following  the  best  authorities,  which,  in  this 
case,  are  usually  the  most  recent,  we  proceed  to  lay  before 
the  reader  a brief  description  of  the  principal  buildings 
which  time  and  barbarism  have  spared  within  the  precincts 
of  this  celebrated  capital. 

In  approaching  the  temple  of  Luxor  from  the  north,  the 
first  object  is  a magnificent  gateway,  which  is  two  hundred 
feet  in  length,  and  the  top  of  it  fifty-seven  feet  above  the 
present  level  of  the  soil.  In  front  of  the  entrance  are  two 
of  the  most  perfect  obelisks  in  the  world,  each  consisting  of 
a single  block  of  red  granite.  They  are  between  seven  and 
eight  feet  square  at  the  base,  and  more  than  eighty  feet 
high ; many  of  the  hieroglypbical  figures  with  which  they 
are  covered  being  an  inch  and  three-quarters  deep,  cut  with 
the  greatest  nicety  and  precision.  Between  these  obelisks 
and  the  propylon  are  two  colossal  statues,  also  of  red  granite  ; 
they  are  nearly  of  equal  size,  but,  from  the  difference  of  the 
dress,  it  is  inferred  that  the  one  was  a male,  the  other  a 
female  figure.  Though  buried  in  the  ground  to  the  chest, 
they  still  measure  about  twenty-two  feet  from  thence  to  the 
top  of  their  mitres. 


* Narrative  of  a Journey  from  Calcutta  to  Europe.  By  Mrs.  Charles 
Lushington,  p.  81. 

Q 


182 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


On  the  eastern  wing  of  the  north  front  of  the  propylon 
there  is  sculptured  a very  animated  description  of  a remark- 
able event  in  the  campaigns  of  some  Egyptian  conqueror. 
The  disposition  of  the  figures  and  the  execution  of  the  whole 
picture  are  equally  admirable,  and  far  surpass  all  ideas  that 
have  ever  been  formed  of  the  state  of  the  arts  in  Egypt  at 
the  era  to  which  they  must  be  attributed.  The  moment 
chosen  for  the  representation  of  the  battle  is  that  when  the 
troops  of  the  enemy  are  driven  back  upon  their  fortress,  and 
the  Egyptians,  in  the  full  career  of  victory,  are  about  be- 
coming masters  of  the  citadel. 

The  commander,  behind  whom  is  borne  aloft  the  royal 
standard,  is  of  a colossal  size,  and  advances  in  a car  drawn 
by  two  horses.  His  helmet  is  adorned  with  a globe,  and 
has  a serpent  at  each  side.  He  is  in  the  act  of  shooting  an 
arrow  from  a bow,  which  is  full  stretched  ; around  him  are 
quivers,  and  at  his  feet  a lion  in  the  act  of  rushing  forward. 
There  is  a great  deal  of  life  and  spirit  in  the  form  and  atti- 
tude of  the  horses,  which  are  at  full  gallop, — feathers 
waving  over  their  heads,  and  the  reins  fastened  round  the 
body  of  the  conqueror.  Under  the  wheels  of  the  car,  and 
under  the  hoofs  and  bellies  of  the  horses,  are  crowds  of 
dead  and  wounded  men.  On  the  side  of  the  enemy  horses 
are  seen  in  full  speed  with  empty  cars  ; others  heedless  of 
the  rein  ; and  all  at  last  rushing  headlong  down  a precipice 
into  a broad  and  deep  river  which  washes  the  walls  of  the 
town.  The  expression  here  is  exceedingly  good.  No- 
where has  the  artist  shown  more  skill  than  in  two  particular 
groups ; in  one  of  which  the  horses,  arrived  at  the  verge 
of  the  precipice,  instantly  fall  down,  while  the  driver,  cling- 
ing with  one  hand  to  the  car,  the  reins  and  whip  falling 
from  the  other,  and  his  whole  body  trembling  with  despair, 
is  about  to  be  hurled  over  the  backs  of  his  steeds.  In  the 
other,  the  horses  still  find  a footing  on  the  side  of  the  hill, 
and  are  hurrying  forward  the  charioteers  to  inevitable  de- 
struction. 

Immediately  in  front  of  the  conqueror  are  several  cars  in 
full  speed  for  the  walls  of  the  town  ; but  even  in  these  the 
w irriors  are  not  beyond  the  reach  of  the  arrow’s  darted  from 
his  unerring  bow ; and  when  wounded  they  look  back  on 
their  pursuer  as  they  fall.  Farther  on,  more  fortunate  fugi- 
tives are  passing  the  river  ; in  which  are  mingled  horses. 


IX  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


183 


chariots,  arms,  and  men,  expressed  in  the  most  faithful 
manner,  and  represented  in  all  attitudes.  Some  have 
already  reached  the  opposite  bank,  where  their  friends,  who 
are  drawn  up  in  order  of  battle  but  have  not  courage  to 
engage  in  fight,  drag  them  to  the  shore.  Others,  having 
escaped  by  another  road,  are  entering  the  gates  of  the  town 
amid  the  shrieks  and  lamentations  of  those  within.  Towers, 
ramparts,  and  battlements  are  crowded  with  inhabitants, 
who  are  chiefly  bearded  old  men  and  ■women.  A party  of 
the  former  are  seen  sallying  forth,  headed  by  a youth  whose 
different  dress  and  high  turban  mark  him  out  as  some  dis- 
tinguished chieftain  ; while  on  either  side  of  the  town 
are  observed  large  bodies  of  infantry,  and  a great  force  of 
■chariots  issuing  from  the  gates,  and  advancing  apparently 
by  different  routes  to  attack  the  besiegers. 

The  ardour  with  which  the  hero  of  the  piece  is  advanc- 
ing has  already  carried  him  far  beyond  the  main  body  of 
his  own  army,  and  he  is  there  alone,  among  the  slain  and 
wounded  wrho  have  sunk  under  his  powerful  arm.  Behind 
this  scene  the  two  lines  of  the  enemy  join  their  forces,  and 
attack  in  a body  the  army  of  the  invaders  who  move  on  to 
meet  them.  Besides  the  peculiarity  of  the  incidents  re- 
corded in  this  interesting  piece  of  sculpture,  there  may  be 
traced  an  evident  distinction  between  the  short  dresses  of 
the  Egyptians  and  the  long  robes  of  their  oriental  enemies, 
whether  Indians,  Persians,  or  Bactrians  ; — the  different 
forms  of  the  car  or  chariot, — the  Egyptian  containing  two 
warriors,  the  foreign  vehicle  being  loaded  with  three  ; and, 
above  all,  the  difference  of  the  arms, — the  soldiers  of  Sesos- 
tris  having  a bow  and  arrows,  while  their  antagonists 
vibrate  spears  or  brandish  short  javelins. 

At  one  extremity  of  the  western  wing  of  the  propylon  the 
beginning  of  this  engagement  appears  to  be  represented ; 
the  same  monarch  being  seen  at  the  head  of  his  troops  ad- 
vancing against  the  double  line  of  the  enemy,  and  first 
breaking  their  ranks.  At  the  other  extremity  of  the  same 
wing  the  conqueror  is  seated  on  his  throne  after  the  victory, 
holding  a sceptre  in  his  left  hand,  and  enjoying  the  barba- 
rous pleasure  of  beholding  eleven  of  the  principal  captives 
tied  together  in  a row  with  a rope  about  their  necks.  The 
foremost  stretches  out  his  hands  imploring  pity  ; another  is 
on  his  knees  just  going  to  be  put  to  death  by  the  hands  of 


184 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


two  executioners ; while  above  them  is  the  vanquished 
monarch  with  his  hands  bound  behind  him  to  a car,  about 
to  be  dragged  in  triumph  before  the  conqueror. 

In  the  rear  of  the  throne  different  captives  are  suffering 
death  in  various  ways ; some  like  the  Briareus,  the  execu- 
tioner holding  them  by  the  hair  of  the  head  ; others  dragged 
by  chariots,  or  slain  by  the  arrow  or  the  scimitar.  Next 
appears  in  view  the  conqueror’s  camp,  round  which  are 
placed  his  treasures,  and  where  his  servants  are  preparing 
a feast  to  celebrate  the  victory. 

“ It  is  impossible,”  says  Mr.  Hamilton,  “ to  view  and  to 
reflect  upon  a picture  so  copious  and  so  detailed  as  this  I 
have  just  described,  w ithout  fanc}'ing  that  I saw  here  the  ori- 
ginal of  many  of  Homer’s  battles,  the  portrait  of  some  of  the 
historical  narratives  of  HeTodotus,  and  one  of  the  principal 
groundworks  of  the  description  of  Diodorus  : and,  to  com- 
plete the  gratification,  we  felt  that,  had  the  artist  been  better 
acquainted  with  the  rules  of  perspective,  the  performance 
might  have  done  credit  to  the  genius  of  a Michael  Angelo 
or  a Julio  Romano.  To  add  to  the  effect,  in  front  of  this 
wall  had  been  erected  a row  of  colossal  figures  of  granite ; 
fragments  of  some  of  them,  still  there,  sufficiently  attest 
their  size,  their  character,  and  the  exquisite  polish  of  the 
stone.” 

All  this  magnificence  and  cost,  the  reader  is  aware,  are 
lavished  on  a gateway.  On  passing  it  the  traveller  enters  a 
ruined  portico,  of  very  large  dimensions  ; and  from  this  a 
double  row  of  seven  columns,  with  lotus  capitals,  two-and- 
twenty  feet  in  circumference,  conducts  him  into  a court  one 
hundred  and  sixty  feet  long,  and  one  hundred  and  forty 
wide,  terminated  at  each  side  by  a row  of  columns  ; beyond 
which  is  another  portico  of  thirty-two  columns,  and  then 
the  adytum,  or  interior  part  of  the  building.  It  is  conjec- 
tured, with  much  plausibility,  that  this  is  the  edifice  to  which 
the  description  of  Diodorus  applies  as  the  palace  or  tomb 
of  the  great  Osymandias ; allowance  being  made  for  his 
embellishments,  in  which  he  has  introduced  some  of  the 
more  striking  features  that  distinguish  the  largest  buildings 
of  Thebes. 

Karnac,  which  is  about  a mile  and  a half  lower  down,  is 
regarded  as  the  principal  site  of  Diospolis,  the  portion  of 
the  ancient  capital  which  remained  most  entire  in  the  days 


IX  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


185 


of  Strabo.  The  temple  at  the  latter  place  has  been  pro- 
nounced, in  respect  to  its  magnitude  and  the  beauty  of  its 
several  parts,  as  unique  in  the  whole  world.  Mr.  Hamil- 
ton admits  that,  in  regard  to  its  general  plan,  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  entrances,  and  the  interior  of  the  building,  the 
descriptions  of  Pococke  and  Denon  are  tolerably  accurate. 
But  he  adds,  that  without  personally  inspecting  this  extra- 
ordinary structure,  it  is  impossible  to  have  any  adequate 
notion  of  its  immense  size,  or  of  the  prodigious  masses  of 
which  it  consists.  This  edifice  has  twelve  principal  en- 
trances, each  of  which  is  composed  of  several  propyla  and 
colossal  gateways,  besides  other  buildings  attached  to  them, 
in  themselves  larger  than  most  other  temples.  The  sides 
of  some  of  these  are  equal  to  the  bases  of  the  greater  num- 
ber of  the  pyramids  in  Middle  Egypt,  and  are  built  in  the 
rustic  style,  each  layer  of  stone  projecting  a little  beyond 
that  which  is  above  it.  One  of  the  propyla  is  entirely  of 
granite,  adorned  with  the  most  finished  hieroglyphics.  On 
each  side  of  many  of  them  have  been  colossal  statues  of 
basalt  and  granite,  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  in  height, — 
some  in  the  attitude  of  sitting,  others  standing  erect.  The 
avenues  of  sphinxes  that  lead  in  several  directions  to  the 
propyla,  one  of  which  was  continued  the  whole  way  across 
the  plain  to  the  temple  at  Luxor,  nearly  two  miles  distant, 
correspond  to  the  magnificence  of  the  principal  structure. 
And  the  body  of  the  temple,  which  is  preceded  by  a large 
court,  at  whose  sides  are  colonnades  of  thirty  columns  in 
length,  and  through  the  middle  of  which  are  tw  o rows  not 
less  than  fifty  feet  high,  consists,  first,  of  a prodigious-  hall 
or  portico,  the  roof  sustained  by  one-hundred  and  thirty- 
four  pillars,  some  of  which  are  twenty-six  feet  in  circum- 
ference, and  others  thirty-four.  Next  appear  four  beau- 
tiful obelisks,  marking  the  entrance  to  the  adytum,  near 
which  the  monarch  is  represented  as  embraced  by  the  arms 
of  Isis.  This  sanctuary  consists  of  three  apartments,  en- 
tirely of  granite.  The  principal  room  is  in  the  centre  ; it 
is  twrenty  feet  long,  sixteen  wide,  and  thirteen  feet  high. 
Three  blocks  of  granite  form  the  roof,  which  is  painted 
with  clusters  of  stars,  on  a blue  ground.  The  walls  are 
likewise  covered  with  painted  sculptures,  of  a character 
admirably  suited  to  the  mysterious  purposes  to  which  the 
Q2 


186 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


chamber  was  sometimes  devoted.*  Beyond  this  are  other 
porticoes  and  galleries,  which  have  been  continued  to  a third 
propylon,  at  the  distance  of  two  thousand  feet  from  that  at 
the  western  extremity  of  the  temple. 

This  is  certainly  the  building  which  Diodorus  Siculus 
attempts  to  describe  as  the  most  wonderful  and  most  an- 
cient of  the  four  temples  at  Thebes,  remarkable  for  their 
magnitude  and  beauty.  In  enumerating  its  colossal  pro- 
portions, he  says  that  it  was  thirteen  stadia — a mile  and  a 
half — in  circumference  ; forty-five  cubits  high  ; and  the 
walls  twenty-four  feet  thick  ; adding,  that  the  ornaments^ 
riches,  and  workmanship  which  combined  to  embellish  it 
corresponded  to  its  vast  extent.  The  above  dimensions, 
however  great,  are,  we  may  add,  in  many  instances  found 
to  fall  short  of  the  truth. 

It  were  needless,  says  the  author  from  whose  work  we 
have  abridged  this  account,  to  enumerate  with  a more  mi- 
nute detail  the  different  apartments,  the  columns,  the  co- 
lossal statues,  the  gateways,  or  the  obelisks  of  this  immense 
edifice.  Denon  concludes  the  partial  description  which  he 
has  attempted,  by  declaring  that  “ one  is  fatigued  with 
writing,  one  is  fatigued  with  reading,  one  is  stunned  with 
the  thought  of  such  a conceptiorl.  It  is  hardly  possible  to 
believe,  after  having  seen  it,  in  the  reality  of  the  existence 
of  so  many  buildings  collected  on  a single  point,  in  their 
dimensions,  in  the  resolute  perseverance  which  their  con- 
struction required,  and  in  the  incalculable  expenses  of  so 
much  magnificence.  On  examining  these  ruins,  the  imagi- 
nation is  wearied  with  the  idea  of  describing  them.  Of 
the  hundred  columns  of  the  porticoes  alone  of  this  temple, 
the  smallest  are  seven  feet  and  a half  in  diameter,  and  the 
largest  twelve.  The  space  occupied  by  this  circumvallation 
contains  lakes  and  mountains.  In  short,  to  be  enabled  to 
form  a competent  idea  of  so  much  magnificence,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  reader  should  fancy  what  is  before  him  to 
be  a dream,  as  he  who  views  the  objects  themselves  oc- 
casionally yields  to  the  doubt  whether  he  be  perfectly 
»wake. ”f 

* Herodotus,  Clio,  c.  182. 

t On  est  fatigue  dYcrire,  on  est  fatigue  de  lire,  on  est  epouvante  de  la 
pens£e  d’une  telle  conception  ; on  ne  peut  croire,  m&me  apr^s  l’avoir  vuf 
a la  reality  de  l’existence  de  tant  de  constructions  reunies  sur  un  me  me 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


187 


The  dimensions  of  the  great  edifice  at  Karnac  are  about 
1200  feet  in  length  and  420  in  width.  But  the  principal 
fane,  grand  and  imposing  as  it  is,  sinks  into  nothing 
when  compared  with  the  extent  and  number  of  the  build- 
ings which  surround  it, — the  prodigious  gateways  of  pol- 
ished granite,  covered  with  sculpture  and  adorned  with 
colossal  statues, — the  subordinate  temples  which  any  where 
else  would  be  esteemed  magnificent  piles, — and  the  ave- 
nues, which  approach  it  from  almost  every  point  of  the 
compass,  miles  in  length,  and  guarded  by  rows  of  sphinxes, 
of  vast  size,  cut  out  of  single  blocks  of  syenite.  The  field 
of  ruins  at  Karnac  is  about  a mile  in  diameter.  Probably 
the  whole  of  this  space  was  once,  in  the  prouder  days  of 
Thebes,  consecrated  entirely  to  the  use  of  the  temple. 
There  are  traces  of  walls  considerably  beyond  this,  which, 
we  may  presume,  enclosed  the  city  in  its  greatest  extent ; 
but,  after  the  seat  of  government  was  withdrawn,  the  capi- 
tal removed  to  Memphis,  and  the  trade  removed  to  another 
mart,  the  inhabitants  narrowed  the  circle  of  their  defences, 
and  built  their  houses  within  the  limits  of  the  sacred 
confines.* 

But  Luxor  and  Karnac  represent  only  one-half  of  ancient 
Thebes.  On  the  western  side  of  the  river  there  are  several 
structures,  which,  although  they  may  be  less  extensive, 
are  equal,  if  not  superior,  in  their  style  of  architecture. 
We  cannot,  however,  enter  upon  a description  of  the  tem- 
ples at  Dair  and  Medinet  Abou.  Suffice  it  to  observe,  that 
the  propylon  of  the  latter  is  about  175  feet  long,  and 
very  richly  adorned  with  the  usual  embellishments  of  sculp- 
ture and  inscriptions.  The  temple  itself  is  in  length  some- 
what more  than  five  hundred  feet,  while  the  cella  is  nearly 
a hundred  and  fifty  broad  without  the  walls.  The  Memno- 
nium,  the  ruins  of  which  give  a melancholy  celebrity  to 
northern  Dair,  is  still  more  remarkable,  and  is  perhaps  one 
of  the  most  ancient  in  Thebes.  This  beautiful  relic  of  an- 
tiquity looks  to  the  east,  and  is  fronted  by  a stupendous 
propylon,  of  which  234  feet  in  length  are  still  remaining. 
The  main  edifice  has  been  about  200  feet  wide,  and  600 

point,  A leur  dimensions,  A la  Constance  obstinAe  qu’a  exigAe  leur  fabri- 
cation, aux  depenses  incalculables  de  tant  de  somptuositA. — Tome  ii. 
p.  226. 

* Richardson’s  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  96, 


183 


REMAIN?  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


feet  long  ; containing  six  courts  and  chambers,  passing 
from  side  to  side,  with  about  one  hundred  and  sixty  col- 
umns thirty  feet  high.  All  the  side-walls  have  been  broken 
down,  and  the  materials  of  which  they  were  composed 
carried  away  ; nothing  remaining  but  a portion  of  the  col- 
onnade and  the  inner  chambers,  to  testify  to  the  traveller 
what  a noble  structure  once  occupied  this  interesting 
spot. 

There  is  a circumstance  mentioned  by  a recent  visiter, 
which  is  too  important  to  be  overlooked  in  detailing  the 
unrivalled  grandeur  of  ancient  Thebes.  The  temple  at 
Medinet  Abou  was  so  placed  as  to  be  exactly  opposite  to 
that  of  Luxor,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Nile  ; while  the 
magnificent  structure  at  Karnac  was  fronted  by  the  Mem- 
nonium  or  temple  of  Dair : and  hence  all  these  grand 
objects  formed  so  many  stages  or  prominent  points  in  the 
religious  processions  of  the  priests.  Though  the  taber- 
nacle of  Jupiter  dwelt  at  Karnac,  the  proper  Diospolis,  yet 
it  was  carried  over  the  river  every  year,  and  remained  a 
few  days  in  Libya  ; and  we  find,  from  a general  estimate, 
that  there  was  a space  of  between  nine  and  ten  miles,  over 
which  they  might  exhibit  the  pomp  and  parade  of  their 
superstition,  both  going  and  returning.  Almost  every  part 
of  the  road  through  this  immense  theatre  -was  lined  with 
sphinxes,  statues,  propyla,  and  other  objects  calculated  to 
inflame  the  ardour  of  devotion  ; and  in  all  the  imposing 
ceremonies  of  pagan  idolatry,  it  is  impossible  to  conceive 
any  thing  more  impressive  than  the  view  which  must  have 
burst  upon  the  sight  of  the  enraptured  votaries  when,  at 
the  close  of  the  solemnity  of  bringing  back  their  god,  they 
entered  the  grand  temple  of  Karnac,  to  replace  him  in  his 
shrine,  with  harps  and  cymbals,  and  songs  of  rejoicing.* 

In  the  Memnonium  there  is  still  to  be  seen  the  statue  of 
Osymandias,  Memnon,  or  Sesostris.  It  is  pronounced  to 
be  by  far  the  finest  relic  of  art  which  the  place  contains, 
and  to  have  been  once  its  brightest  ornament,  though  at 
present  it  is  thrown  down  from  its  pedestal,  laid  prostrate 
on  the  ground,  arid  shattered  into  a thousand  pieces.  It  is 
about  26  feet  broad  between  the  shoulders,  54  feet  round 
the  chest,  and  13  feet  from  the  shoulder  to  the  elbow. 


* Richardson,  vol.  ii.  p.  95. 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


189 


There  are  on  the  back  and  both  arms  hieroglyphical  tablets 
extremely  well  executed,  which  identify  this  enormous 
statue  with  the  hero  whose  achievements  are  sculptured  on 
the  walls  of  the  temple. 

This  figure  has  sometimes  been  confounded  with  that 
which  bears  the  name  of  Memnon,  and  which  has  been  so 
long  celebrated  for  its  vocal  qualities.  This  last,  however, 
is  one  of  the  two  statues  vulgarly  called  Shamy  and  Damy, 
which  stand  at  a little  distance  from  Medinet  Abou, 
towards  the  Nile.  These,  we  are  told,  are  nearly  equal  in 
magnitude,  being  about  52  feet  in  height.  The  thrones  on 
which  they  respectively  rest  are  thirty  feet  long,  eighteen 
broad,  and  between  seven  and  eight  feet  high.  They  are 
placed  about  forty  feet  asunder  ; are  in  a line  with  each 
other  ; and  look  towards  the  east,  directly  opposite  to  the 
temple  of  Luxor.  If  there  be  any  difference  of  size,  the 
southern  one  is  the  smaller.  It  appears  to  be  of  one  entire 
stone.  The  face,  arms,  and  front  of  the  body  have  suf- 
fered so  much  from  studied  violence  that  not  a feature  of 
the  countenance  remains.  The  headdress  is  beautifully 
wrought,  as  also  the  shoulders,  which,  with  the  back,  con- 
tinue quite  uninjured.  The  massy  hair  projects  from 
behind  the  ears  like  that  of  the  Sphinx.  The  sides  of  the 
throne  are  highly  ornamented  with  the  elegant  device  of 
two  bearded  figures  tying  the  stem  of  the  flexible  lotus 
round  the  ligula.  The  colossus  is  in  a sitting  posture,  with 
the  hands  resting  upon  the  knees.  On  the  outside  of  each 
of  the  limbs  there  is  a small  statue,  with  spiked  crowns  on 
their  heads,  and  fhe  arms  down  by  the  side.  They  stand 
up  in  front  of  the  pedestal,  and  reach  nearly  to  the  knee. 
The  legs  of  tHte  great  statue  are  divided,  and  between  the 
feet  there  is  another  diminutive  figure  whose  head  does  not 
rise  higher  than  the  two  just  descnbed. 

The  other  statue,  which  stands  on  the  north  side,  appears 
to  be  that  of  the  vocal  Memnon.  It  presents  the  same  atti- 
tude as  its  companion,  with  a similar  figure  between  the 
feet  and  on  each  side  of  the  legs.  It  has,  however,  been 
broken  over  at  the  waist, — an  effect  which  was  reported  to 
Strabo  to  have  been  produced  by  an  earthquake.  In  his 
time  the  head  with  the  disrupted  half  of  the  body,  lay  on 
the  ground ; the  other  half  remaining  in  the  original  posi- 
tion, which  it  still  occupies.  The  part  that  had  been 


190 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


broken  off  is  now  carried  away,  and  the  figure  is  again 
completed  by  courses  of  common  sandstone,  forming  the 
back,  neck,  and  head.  It  is  entirely  fashioned  like  the 
upper  part  of  the  other,  having  several  hieroglyphics  and 
other  emblems  sculptured  between  the  shoulders  ; but,  as 
the  stone  is  not  susceptible  of  such  elegant  workmanship, 
no  attempt  has  been  made  to  imitate  the  drapery  which 
adorns  its  more  fortunate  neighbour.  Upon  that  portion 
of  the  more  celebrated  statue  which  still  remains,  or  rather 
upon  the  side  of  the  throne,  the  ornament  of  the  two 
bearded  figures  tying  the  lotus  round  the  stalk  of  the  ligula, 
with  the  accompanying  hieroglyphics,  are  as  fresh  and  dis- 
tinct as  on  the  other.  The  drapery,  too,  as  far  as  can 
now  be  determined,  must  have  been  originally  the  same 
in  both. 

“But,”  says  Dr.  Richardson,  “what  characterizes  this 
as  the  statue  of  vocal  celebrity  are  the  numerous  inscrip- 
tions, both  in  Greek  and  Latin,  in  verse  and  prose,  with 
which  it  is  covered ; all  of  them  attesting  that  the  writers 
had  heard  the  heavenly  voice  of  Memnon  at  the  first  dawn 
of  day, — feeble  indeed  at  first,  but  afterward  becoming 
strong  and  powerful  like  a trumpet.  We  searched  with 
eagerness  for  the  name  of  the  illustrious  geographer  quoted 
above  ; but,  if  ever  it  was  there,  it  is  now  among  the  many 
illegibles  that  no  human  eye  can  decipher.  Julia  Romilla, 
Cecilia  Treboulla,  Pulitha  Balbima,  and  many  others,  attest 
that  they  heard  the  voice  of  the  Memnon,  when  along  with 
the  Emperor  Hadrian  and  his  royal  consort  Sabina,  w'hom 
they  seem  to  have  accompanied  in  their  tour  throughout  the 
country.  One  person  writes, — I hear  (audio)  the  Memnon ; 
and  another  person, — I heard  the  Memnon  sitting  in  Thebes 
opposite  to  Diospolis.”-* 

We  know  not  whether  the  fact  now  mentioned  will 
receive  any  explanation  from  the  circumstance  that  the 
material  of  which  the  statues  are  composed  is  a quartzy 
sandstone,  highly  crystallized,  and  containing  a considerable 
portion  of  iron.  When  struck  it  gives  a metallic  ring, — the 
kind  of  sound  which  used  to  be  attributed  to  the  Memnon. 
It  is  singular,  at  all  events,  that  the  belief  of  its  former 
vocality  still  lingers  in  the  tradition  of  the  country  ; for  the 


* Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  41. 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT.  191 

Arabs  continue  to  call  it  Salamat,  or  the  statue  that  bids 
good  morning.* 

It  is  evident  that  these  statues  stand  on  either  side  of  an 
avenue  leading  to  a place  of  worship,  and  that  they  were 
followed  by  a series  of  other  colossal  figures,  the  remains 
of  some  of  which  are  still  visible.  The  temple,  whose  ap- 
proach they  were  appointed  to  guard,  was  uncovered  by 
Mr.  Salt,  who  at  the  same  time  brought  to  light  a number 
of  sphinxes,  with  the  lion’s  head  on  the  body  of  a human 
female,  and  in  short  traced  the  foundation  and  columns  of 
a magnificent  building.  Belzoni,  in  like  manner,  disinterred 
a handsome  statue  of  black  granite,  which  is  now  within 
the  precincts  of  the  British  museum, — affording  additional 
evidence  that  the  Memnon  had  belonged  to  an  establish- 
ment not  inferior,  perhaps,  even  to  the  sublime  structures 
of  Luxor  and  Karnac.  On  this  ground  we  are  disposed 
to  adopt  the  opinion  of  the  writer  whom  we  have  just 
quoted,  who  thinks  that  the  ruined  temple  now  mentioned 
ought  to  be  regarded  as  the  proper  Memnonium,  and  not 
the  edifice  which  contains  the  statue  of  Osymandias. 

The  neighbourhood  of  Thebes  presents  another  subject 
worthy  of  attention,  and  quite  characteristic  of  an  Egyptian 
capital, — the  Necropolis,  or  City  of  the  Dead.  Proceeding 
on  the  idea  that  the  human  being  only  sojourns  for  a time 
in  the  land  of  the  living,  but  that  the  tomb  is  his  perma 
nent  dwelling-place,  the  inhabitants  of  this  magnificent 
metropolis  lavished  much  of  their  wealth  and  taste  on  the 
decoration  of  their  sepulchres.  The  mountains  on  the 
western  side  of*Thebes  have  been  nearly  hollowed  out  in 
order  to  supply  tombs  for  the  inhabitants  ; while  an  adjoin- 
ing valley,  remarkable  for  its  solitary  and  gloomy  aspect, 
appears  to  have  been  selected  by  persons  of  rank  as  the  re- 
ceptacle of  their  mortal  remains.  The  darkest  recesses  of 
these  pits  and  chambers  have  been  repeatedly  explored  by 
travellers  in  search  of  such  antiquities  as  might  illustrate 
the  ancient  manners  of  the  people,  as  well  as  by  those  mer- 
cenary dealers  in  mummies  who  make  a trade  of  human 
bones,  coffins,  and  funeral  lining. 

To  give  an  idea  of  the  magnificence  lavished  by  the 
Egyptians  on  their  burial-places,  it  will  be  enough  to  de- 


Richardson,  p.  43. 


102 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


scribe  the  immense  vaults  discovered  by  Belzoni,  who,  in 
excavating  for  curiosities,  possessed  a tact  or  instinct 
similar  to  that  which  leads  the  mineral  engineer  to  the 
richest  veins  of  the  precious  metals.  He  fixed  upon  a spot 
at  the  bottom  of  a precipice,  over  which,  when  there  hap- 
pens to  be  rain  in  the  desert,  a torrent  rushes  with  great 
fury ; and  after  no  small  .degree  of  labour  he  reached  the 
entrance  of  a large  and  very  splendid  tomb.  This  hall, 
which  is  extremely  beautiful,  is  twenty-seven  feet  long  and 
twenty-five  broad  ; the  roof  being  supported  by  pillars  fully 
four  feet  square.  At  the  end  of  it  is  a large  door  which 
opens  into  another  chamber  twenty-eight  feet  by  twenty- 
five,  having  the  Avails  covered  with  figures,  which,  though 
only  drawn  in  outline,  are  so  perfect  that  one  would  think 
they  had  been  done  only  the  day  before.  Returning  into 
the  entrance-hall,  he  observed  a large  staircase  descending 
into  a passage.  It  is  thirteen  feet  long,  seven  and  a half  in 
width,  and  has  eighteen  steps,  leading  at  the  bottom  to  a 
beautiful  corridor  of  large  dimensions.  He  remarked  that 
the  paintings  became  more  perfect  the  farther  he  advanced 
into  the  interior,  retaining  their  gloss  or  a kind  of  varnish 
laid  over  the  colours,  which  had  a beautiful  effect,  being 
usually  executed  on  a white  ground.  At  the  end  of  this 
splendid  passage  he  descended  by  ten  steps  into  another 
equally  superb ; from  which  he  entered  into  an  apartment 
twenty- four  feet  by  thirteen,  and  so  elegantly  adorned  with 
sculptures  and  paintings  that  he  called  it  the  Room  of 
Beauty.  When  standing  in  the  centre  of  this  chamber,  the 
traveller  is  surrounded  by  an  assembly  of  Egyptian  gods 
and  goddesses — the  leading  personages  of  the  Pantheon, — 
whose  presence  was  thought  to  honour,  or  perhaps  to  pro- 
tect, the  remains  of  the  mighty  dead. 

Proceeding  farther,  he  entered  a large  hall  twenty-eight 
feet  long,  and  twenty-seven  broad ; in  which  are  two  rows 
of  square  pillars,  three  on  each  side  of  the  entrance,  form- 
ing a line  with  the  corridors.  At  either  side  of  this  hall, 
which  he  termed  the  Hall  of  Pillars,  is  a small  chamber; 
the  one  on  the  right  is  ten  feet  by  nine,  that  on  the  left  ten 
feet  five  inches  by  eight  feet  nine  inches.  The  former  of 
these,  having  in  it  the  figure  of  a cow  painted,  he  called  the 
Room  of  Isis ; the  latter,  from  the  various  emblematical 
drawings  which  it  exhibits,  was  denominated  the  Room  of 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


193 


Mysteries.  At  the  end  of  the  hall  is  the  entry  to  a large 
saloon  with  an  arched  roof  or  ceiling,  and  extending  to 
thirty-two  feet  in  length  by  a breadth  of  twenty-seven.  On 
the  right  of  the  saloon  is  a small  chamber  without  any  thing 
in  it,  roughly  cut  as  if  unfinished,  and  destitute  of  painting ; 
on  the  left  is  an  apartment  with  two  square  pillars,  twenty- 
five  feet  eight  inches  by  twenty-two  feet  ten  inches.  These 
columns  are  three  feet  four  inches  square,  and  beautifully 
painted  like  the  rest.  At  the  same  end  of  the  room,  and 
facing  the  Hall  of  Pillars,  he  found  another  chamber,  forty- 
three  feet  long  by  seventeen  six  inches  broad,  and  adorned 
with  a variety  of  columns.  It  is  covered  with  white  plaster 
where  the  rock  did  not  cut  smoothly,  but  there  is  no  painting 
in  it ; and  as  Mr.  Belzoni  discovered  in  it  the  carcass  of  a 
bull  embalmed  with  asphaltum,  he  distinguished  it  by  the 
appellation  of  the  Room  of  Apis.  There  were  also  seen, 
scattered  in  various  places,  an  immense  number  of  small 
wooden  figures  of  mummies  six  or  eight  inches  long,  and 
covered  with  mineral  oil  to  preserve  them.  There  were  some 
other  figures  of  fine  earth,  baked,  coloured  blue,  and  strongly 
varnished  ; while  on  each  side  of  the  two  little  rooms  were 
wooden  statues  standing  erect,  with  a circular  hollow  inside, 
as  if  to  contain  a roll  of  papyrus. 

“ But,”  sajrs  Mr.  Belzoni,  “ the  description  of  what  wre 
found  in  the  centre  of  the  saloon,  and  which  I have  reserved 
till  this  place,  merits  the  most  particular  attention,  not 
having  its  equal  inThe  world,  and  being  such  as  we  had  no 
idea  could  exist.  It  is  a sarcophagus  of  the  finest  oriental 
alabaster,  nine  feet  five  inches  long,  and  three  feet  seven 
inches  wide.  The  thickness  is  only  two  inches,  and  it  is 
transparent  when  a light  is  placed  in  the  inside  of  it.  It  is 
minutely  sculptured  within  and  without  with  several  hun- 
dred figures,  which  do  not  exceed  two  inches  in  height,  and 
represent,  as  I suppose,  the  whole  of  the  funeral  procession 
and  ceremonies  relating  to  the  deceased.  I cannot  give  an 
adequate  idea  of  this  beautiful  and  invaluable  piece  of  an- 
tiquity, and  can  only  say  that  nothing  has  been  brought  into 
Europe  from  Egypt  that  can  be  compared  with  it.  Thecover 
was  not  there  ; it  had  been  taken  out  and  broken  into  several 
pieces,  which  we  found  in  digging  before  the  first  entrance.”* 

* Belzorii’s  Narrative  of  Operations,  &c.  vol.  i.  p.  365.  Dr.  Clarke 
pronounced  the  stone  of  which  the  sarcophagus  is  composed  to  be  of  a 


194 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


The  sarcophagus  was  placed  over  a staircase  in  the  centre 
of  the  saloon,  communicating  with  a subterraneous  passage 
three  hundred  feet  in  length,  which  seemed  to  proceed 
through  the  very  heart  of  the  mountain.  Hence,  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  there  must  originally  have  been  two 
entrances  to  the  tomb,  one  of  which  was  closed  at  the  time 
when  the  sarcophagus  was  lodged  in  it ; for  not  only  was 
this  communication  obstructed  by  means  of  a wall,  but 
several  large  stones  were  inserted  in  the  pavement  of  the 
saloon,  to  prevent  any  one  from  perceiving  either  the  stair 
or  the  passage  to  which  it  leads.  In  short,  great  pains  had 
been  taken  to  conceal  the  chamber  in  which  the  royal  corpse 
was  deposited.  The  staircase  of  the  entrance-hall  had 
been  built  up  at  the  bottom,  and  the  intervening  space  filled 
with  rubbish  ; while  the  floor  was  covered  with  large  blocks 
of  stone,  so  as  to  deceive  such  individuals  as  might  happen 
to  force  a passage  through  the  wall,  and  make  them  suppose 
that  the  tomb  ended  at  the  second  apartment.  The  persons 
who  had  been  previously  in  the  sepulchre,  and  destroyed 
the  cover  of  the  sarcophagus,  must  have  possessed  a com- 
plete acquaintance  with  the  plan  and  structure  of  that  sub- 
terranean palace ; for,  at  their  departure  they  used  such 
precautions  against  a second  discovery,  that  no  degree  of 
sagacity  less  than  the  share  which  had  fallen  to  Belzoni  could 
have  defeated  their  object. 

The  walls  of  nearly  all  the  apartments  are  decorated  with 
superb  paintings  and  sculptures  which  we  cannot  undertake 
to  describe  at  length.  But,  for  a reason  which  will  imme- 
diately appear,  we  must  not  pass  over  one  wherein  is  repre- 
sented a military  procession,  consisting  of  a gTeat  number 
of  figures  all  looking  towards  a man  who  is  much  superior 
to  them  in  size.  At  the  close  of  this  pageant  are  three  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  people,  from  as  many  nations,  evidently  Jews, 
Ethiopians,  and  Persians.  Behind  them  are  some  Egyp- 
tians without  their  ornaments,  as  if  they  were  captives 
rescued  and  returning  to  their  own  country,  followed  by 
a hawk-headed  figure,  supposed  to  be  their  protecting 
deity. 

By  the  application  of  his  principle  for  explaining  phonetic 

rarer  and  much  more  valuable  species  than  alabaster.  A model  of  this 
splendid  tomb  was  afterward  exhibited  in  London  containing  the  real 
sarcophagus. 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


195 


hieroglyphics,  Dr.  Young  discovered  among  the  drawings 
copied  from  this  tomb  the  names  of  Necho  and  Psammis, 
kings  of  Egypt,  who  reigned  towards  the  end  of  the  seventh 
century  before  the  Christian  era.  Now,  it  is  universally 
known  that  Pharaoh-Necho  conquered  Jerusalem  and 
Babylon,  and  that  his  son  Psammis  or  Psammuthis,  as  he  is 
sometimes  called,  made  war  against  the  Ethiopians.  Hence, 
we  are  provided  with  the  means  of  understanding  the  object 
as  well  as  the  constituent  parts  of  the  procession  described 
by  Belzoni.  The  natives  of  three  different  countries  are 
distinctly  recognised.  The  Jews  are  readily  distinguished 
by  their  physiognomy  and  complexion  ; the  Ethiopians  by 
their  colour  and  ornaments ; and  the  Persians  by  their 
characteristic  dress,  as  they  are  so  often  seen  engaged  in 
battle  with  the  Egyptians.* 

There  cannot,  therefore,  be  any  doubt  as  to  the  age  of 
this  splendid  monument  of  Egyptian  art  ; for  the  two  Pha- 
raohs whom  it  commemorates,  and  by  the  latter  of  whom  it 
was  probably  erected,  swayed  the  sceptre  nearly  two  thou- 
sand five  hundred  years  ago.  What  were  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  at  that  period  I They  were  barbarians  in  the 
strictest  sense  of  the  word,  or  only  beginning  to  emerge  from 
the  rudest  condition  in  which  mankind  are  found  to  cultivate 
the  relations  of  social  life.  Many  of  the  sepulchral  chambers 
of  Thebes  are  much  older  than  that  of  Psammis,  reaching 
back  to  the  epoch  when  that  capital  was 

“ The  world's  great  empress  on  the  Egyptian  plain, 

That  spread  her  conquest  o’er  a thousand  states, 

And  poured  her  heroes  through  a hundred  gates ; 

Two  hundred  horsemen  and  two  hundred  cars 
From  each  wide  portal  issued  to  the  wars.” — Pope. 

Every  traveller,  from  Bruce  down  to  the  latest  tourist  who 
has  trodden  in  his  steps,  luxuriates  in  the  description  of  Gor- 
noo,  with  its  excavated  mountains,  and  dwells  with  minute 
anxiety  on  the  ornaments  which  at  once  decorate  the  superb 
mausoleums  of  the  Beban  el  Melouk,  and  record  the  early 
progress  of  Egyptian  science.  It  is  lamentable,  however, 
to  find,  that  in  the  great  work  published  under  the  auspices 
of  the  French  government,  the  representations,  in  point  of 

* Dr.  Richardson,  vol.  i.  p.  281,  differs  from  Belzoni  as  to  the  figures 
tn  the  procession,  but  without  any  attempt  to  oppose  the  explanation 
of  Dr.  Young,  or  to  call  in  question  the  antiquity  of  the  tomb. 


196 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


colouring  at  least,  are  extremely  inaccurate.  In  the  Harp 
Tomb,  for  example,  the  drawings  of  which  were  very  accu- 
rately copied  by  the  historian  of  Abyssinia  and  his  secretary 
Balugani,  there  is  a priest  performing,  who  is  dressed  in  a 
long  white  robe  spotted  or  ?',nped  with  red.  The  French 
artists  have  arrayed  him  in  a flowing  mantle  of  the  deepest 
black  with  white  stripes.  The  gentleman,  too,  who  is 
seated  on  a chair  at  a little  distance  listening  to  the  music, 
and  habited  in  a short  loose  garment  falling  about  half-way 
down  the  thighs,  the  rest  of  the  limbs  and  arms  being  bare, 
the  Savans  have  attired  in  a pair  of  blue  pantaloons  after 
the  Parisian  fashion,  and  in  a waistcoat  of  the  same  colour. 
The  headdress,  moreover,  which  in  the  original  reaches  up 
to  the  ceiling,  they  have  curtailed  into  a small  bonnet, 
bearing  a striking  resemblance  to  the  cap  of  liberty.  In  this 
way  they  have  given  to  the  group  a sort  of  general  resem- 
blance, while  in  the  detail  the  representation  is  as  unlike  as 
possible.  They  have  made  that  blue  which  should  be  red, 
black  which  should  be  white,  yellow  which  should  be  green, 
and  short  which  should  be  long.* 

The  names  of  Jollois  and  Devilliers  are  affixed  to  the 
large  prints  of  the  tomb  just  mentioned,  as  vouchers  for  their 
accuracy  ; but  there  is  too  much  reason  to  suspect  that  the 
labour  of  colouring  the  engravings,  like  the  task  of  writing 
the  dissertations  on  the  antiquities  of  Egypt,  was  left  to  the 
ingenuity  of  artists  at  Paris,  who  had  no  other  guide  than 
an  indistinct  description.  As  a farther  proof  of  this,  we 
may  mention  that  the  painting  in  the  ruins  of  the  Memno- 
nium,  which  represents  the  storming  of  a fort,  was  copied 
by  Major  Hayes,  as  well  as  by  the  French  academicians, 
and  that  the  men,  who  have  a sort  of  petticoat  drapery  in 
the  one,  are  naked  in  the  other ; our  neighbours  preferring 
what  appeared  to  them  the  more  picturesque  representation, 
without  paying  any  regard  to  the  truth  of  monuments.! 

When  examining  the  tomb  discovered  by  Belzoni,  a subse- 

* Richardson,  vol.  iup.  4. 

I Dr.  Richardson,  vol.  ii.  p.  5,  remarks,  that  after  so  many  misrepre- 
sentations in  the  work  of  the  Wise-men, — the  French  Savans, — it  will 
not  be  difficult  to  decide  whose  names  should  precede  the  verb,  in  the 
very  courtly  inscription,  “ Bruce  est  un  menteur and  whether  we 
might  not  with  some  degree  of  propriety  address  them,  considered  as  a 
single  body,  in  the  words  of  the  Roman  bard  “Nomine  mutato,  de  te 
fabula  narratur » 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


197 


quent  traveller,  after  observing  that  the  colours  are  remark- 
ably vivid,  and  that  the  painting  has  not  suffered  either  from 
time  or  human  violence,  adds,  “ It  is  impossible  adequately 
to  describe  the  sensations  of  delight  and  astonishment  which 
by  turns  took  possession  of  our  minds  as  we  moved  along 
the  corridor,  and  examined  the  different  groups  and  hiero- 
glyphics that  occur  in  every  successive  chamber.  We  had 
been  told  that  what  we  saw  was  a tomb  ; but  it  required  a 
constant  effort  of  the  mind  to  convince  us  that  it  was  such. 
Only  one  sarcophagus  in  one  chamber,  and  twelve  cham- 
bers, exclusive  of  the  long  corridor,  all  highly  ornamented, 
for  nothing  ! It  may  have  been  a subterraneous  temple, 
exhibiting  the  religious  creed  of  the  worshippers,  or  the  rites 
of  initiation.  It  may  have  been  a subterraneous  palace, 
like  those  of  the  king  of  the  Troglodytes.  But  never  was 
there  such  a superfluous  waste,  if  we  are  to  suppose  that 
all  this  was  done  merely  for  the  reception  of  one  sarcopha- 
gus.” Perhaps,  like  the  chambers  of  imagery  seen  by  the 
Jewish  prophet,  they  were  the  scene  of  idolatrous  rites  per- 
formed in  the  dark, — an  opinion  which  has  received  the 
countenance  of  Mr.  Jowett,  who  says  that  the  tombs  of  the 
Beban  el  Melouk  cannot  be  better  described  than  in  the 
words  of  Ezekiel,  “ Then  said  he  unto  me,  Son  of  man,  dig 
now  in  the  wall : and  when  I had  digged  in  the  wall,  behold 
a door.  And  he  said  unto  me,  Go  in,  and  behold  the  wicked 
abominations  that  they  do  there.  So  I went  in  and  saw ; 
and  behold,  every  form  of  creeping  things,  and  abominable 
beasts,  and  all  the  idols  of  the  house  of  Israel,  portrayed 
upon  the  wall  round  about.”  In  this,  as  in  other  cases,  the 
Hebrews  were  but  servile  imitators  ; the  originals  were  in 
Egypt,  and  are  still  to  be  seen  in  almost  all  the  ancient 
sepulchres  or  subterranean  temples.* 

We  cannot  leave  these  ancient  tombs  without  expressing 
our  regret  that  the  rage  for  discovery  in  the  mansions  of  the 
dead  should  have  led  to  consequences  so  little  creditable  to 
European  delicacy.  The  mummies  have  been  drawn  from 
their  tombs  with  a rapacious  and  unsparing  hand.  The 
chief  part  of  this  havoc,  no  doubt,  has  been  committed  by 
the  Arabs,  who  tear  the  bodies  open  to  get  at  the  rosin,  or 
asphaltum,  used  in  the  embalming,  which  they  sell  at  Cairo 

* Richardson,  vol.  ii.  p.  78 ; Jowett’s  Christian  Researches. 

R3 


198 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


to  great  advantage ; .but  travellers  and  their  agents  have 
also  had  their  share  in  this  sacrilege,  as  it  may  be  justly 
called.  “ It  is,”  says  Mr.  Came,  “ a sad  and  disgusting 
sight ; the  sands  and  the  edges  of  the  graves  in  some  parts 
being  strewed  with  bones,  and  even  pieces  of  flesh  thrown 
wantonly  about.  The  poor  Egyptians,  who  had  slept  in 
peace  some  thousands  of  years,  have  been  mercilessly 
dealt  with  here,  and  the  remains  of  warriors,  citizens,  and 
sages,  now  lie  mingled  together  beneath  the  burning  sun ; 
for  no  retreat  or  sanctuary  has  been  suffered  to  remain 
inviolate.”* 

Sir  F.  Henniker  made  a similar  complaint.  He  tells  us 
that  the  plain  is  strewed  with  broken  bones,  and  that  the 
coffins  are  used  for  firewood.  The  trouble  that  the  Egyp- 
tians took  to  preserve  their  bodies  causes  their  destruction, 
and  “ the  race  of  Nilus  barters  for  their  kings.”  I was 
standing  by,  he  adds,  when  the  resurrection-men  found  a 
sepulchre  ; “ they  offered  me  the  haul,  unopened,  for  four 
guineas.”  It  proved  to  be  Grecian-Egyptian,  the  first  of  its 
kind  hitherto  discovered ; including  three  chambers,  with 
fourteen  coffins,  in  each  of  which  was  placed  a bunch  of 
sycamore  branches,  which  fell  to  atoms  at  the  touch.  The 
whole  of  ancient  Thebes  is  the  private  property  of  the 
French  and  English  consuls  ; a line  of  demarcation  is  drawn 
through  every  temple,  and  these  buildings,  which  have 
hitherto  withstood  the  attacks  of  barbarians,  will  not  long 
resist  the  speculation  of  civilized  cupidity,  directed  by  phi- 
losophers and  antiquaries.  + 

Ascending  the  Nile,  the  traveller  finds  the  valley,  which 
had  contracted  above  Thebes  to  very  narrow  limits,  once 
more  begin  to  widen,  and  the  adjoining  hills  to  retire.  In 
a recess,  about  a mile  from  the  river,  stands  the  village  of 
Herment,  on  the  ruins  of  a city  to  which  the  Greeks  gave 
the  name  of  Hermonthis.  A temple  of  moderate  dimen- 
sions, but  peculiar  in  its  plan,  and  distinguished  only  by  the 
beauty  of  its  columns  and  sculptures,  is  still  remaining. 
There  is  no  trace  of  a propylon  ; but  the  walls  of  the  pro- 
naos  are  standing,  though  in  many  places  much  dilapidated. 
The  cella  is  pretty  entire,  and  covered  with  sculptures  and 

* Letters  from  the  East,  vol.  i.  p.  357. 

t Notes  during  a Visit  to  Egypt,  <kc.  p.  137 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


199 


hieroglyphics  ; for  a description  of  which  we  must  refer  the 
reader  to  the  authentic  pages  of  Travels  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean. We  are  assured  that  these  works  are  well  executed, 
and  indicate  a more  ancient  date  than  most  of  the  temples 
in  Egypt ; and  yet  stones,  bearing  hieroglyphics,  are  found 
here  placed  in  an  inverted  position,  and  thereby  supplying 
ground  for  a reasonable  conjecture  that  they  had  been 
brought  from  the  ruins  of  edifices  still  older  than  the  one 
in  which  they  are  now  incorporated. 

Esneh,  the  ancient  Latopolis,  is  the  next  place  which 
invites  the  attention  of  the  scientific  tourist.  It  is  worthy 
of  notice  chiefly  on  account  of  a temple,  the  portico  of 
which  has  been  pronounced  by  Denon  to  be  the  purest  frag- 
ment of  Egyptian  architecture,  and  one  of  the  most  perfect 
monuments  of  antiquity.  It  consists  of  eight  columns  with 
broad  capitals,  differing  from  each  other  in  the  ornament 
that  they  bear  ; in  one  it  is  the  vine,  in  another  the  ivy,  in 
a third  the  palm-leaf.  The  parts  behind  the  portico  are 
trivial  and  negligent  as  to  their  decorations.  The  sanctuary 
is  totally  destroyed  ; but,  from  what  remains  of  the  outer 
wall,  there  seems  to  have  been  an  exterior  gallery  quite 
around  the  temple.  The  pronaos  has  still  twrenty-four  col- 
umns, six  rows  with  four  in  each.  Various  devices,  resem- 
bling those  at  Dendera,  appear  on  the  ceiling  between  the 
columns ; and  in  the  space  w'hich  separates  the  last  row 
from  the  wall  on  each  side,  are  represented  the  twelve  signs 
of  the  zodiac,  or  perhaps  certain  astrological  emblems  de- 
noting the  influence  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  The  vicinity 
of  Esneh,  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  exhibits  the  remains 
of  many  buildings  of  which  the  history  and  the  object  have 
been  long  concealed  in  that  darkness  which  still  hangs  over 
the  former  condition  of  Upper  Egypt.  Vestiges  of  prime- 
val paganism  can  be  traced,  mingled  with  the  more  recent 
institutions  of  Christianity,  but  both  now  so  much  defaced 
by  the  ravages  of  civil  wrar  that  the  most  diligent  research 
fails  to  be  rewarded  with  any  adequate  degree  of  success. 

The  grottoes  of  Eleithias,  a town  somewhat  farther  south 
and  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Nile,  are  extremely  interest- 
ing, inasmuch  as  they  represent,  in  the  paintings  with 
which  the  walls  are  decorated,  many  of  the  pursuits  and 
habits  that  illustrate  the  private  life  of  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
In  this  respect  they  are  more  important  than  even  the 


200 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


splendid  sepulchres  of  Thebes  ; the  ornaments  in  the  latter 
being  confined  to  the  higher  ceremonies  of  religion,  or  to 
the  shadowing  forth  of  those  physical  mysteries  to  which 
their  pious  rites  are  supposed  to  have  had  an  immediate 
reference. 

The  great  French  work,  and  the  less  pretending  volume 
of  Mr.  Hamilton,  supply  a very  particular  description  of 
the  works  of  art  at  Eleithias.  In  the  largest  of  the  grottoes 
visited  by  our  countryman,  there  are  three  statues  the  size 
of  life,  representing  a wealthy  rustic  with  his  two  wives. 
One  side  of  the  wall  is  occupied  with  the  picture  of  a feast, 
at  which  the  master  and  mistress  are  seated  together  on  a 
chair,  richly  dressed, — a favourite  monkey  at  their  feet  is 
regaling  itself  on  a basket  of  grapes.  A servant,  part  of 
whose  livery  is  the  skin  of  a leopard,  appears  to  introduce 
the  guests,  who  are  sitting  in  rows  of  men  and  women, 
each  with  a lotus  in  the  hand.  To  some  of  these  the  attend- 
ants are  presenting  bowls  and  dishes,  according  to  the 
usage  which  still  prevails  in  many  parts  of  the  East. 
Behind  the  visiters  are  tables  covered  with  sundry  kinds  of 
food  ; while  the  banquet  is  enlivened  by  the  presence  of  mu- 
sicians and  dancers.  One  woman  is  playing  on  a harp  ; 
another  on  a double  flute  ; three  others  are  dancing  in  the 
style*  of  those  females  kqown  at  Cairo  under  the  name  of 
Almeh ; and  a small  figure,  apart,  is  performing  similar 
motions  with  a sword  in  each  hand.  The  master  is  then 
represented  walking,  attended  by  his  servants,  who,  among 
other  things,  are  carrying  a chair,  a water-jar,  and  a mat, 
to  visit  his  labourers  at  work  : and  accordingly  the  artist 
has  here  depicted  the  mode  of  hoeing,  ploughing,  sowing, 
and  rolling  ; of  reaping  the  com  and  gathering  it  in  ; of 
winnowing  the  grain,  and  the  carriage  of  it  to  the  granary ; 
and,  finally,  the  embarkation  of  bread  or  biscuit  on  board 
the  Djerms.  The  farm-yard  is  next  seen  crowded  with 
oxen,  cows,  sheep,  goats,  asses,  mules,  and  other  animals. 
Again,  we  see  the  vintage  and  the  process  of  making  wine  ; 
after  which,  the  mode  of  catching  and  salting  fish  and 
water-fowl.  Finally,  fruits  are  presented  to  the  master  and 
his  friends,  and  the  whole  concludes  with  offerings  of  grati- 
tude to  the  gods. 

In  another  part  of  the  scene  is  the  flax-harvest.  The 
whole  process  of  pulling  the  crop  up  by  the  roots,  of  carry- 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


201 


ing  it  away  in  small  bundles  and  combing  it,  is  very  inge- 
niously represented.  It  may  be  observed  that  the  com- 
plexion of  the  men  is  invariably  red,  that  of  the  women 
yellow  ; but  neither  of  them  can  be  said  to  have  any  thing 
in  their  physiognomy  at  all  resembling  the  negro  counte- 
nance. The  labourers  are  dressed  in  a sort  of  scull-cap, 
and  in  short  close  drawers,  having  very  little  hair  on  their 
heads  ; while  the  locks  of  the  others  who  appear  to  super- 
intend them  spread  out  at  the  sides,  after  the  fashion  of  the 
Nubians  and  Berberi  above  the  Cataracts. 

Next  follow  representations  of  ship-building  and  sailing, 
with  all  the  machinery  which  belonged  to  their  simple  navi- 
gation. Nor  are  the  amusements  of  the  fowler  forgotten, 
which  seem  to  have  consisted  in  the  use  of  a net  and  a 
variety  of  other  snares.  The  bow  and  arrow  appear  to  have 
been  also  employed.  The  scene,  after  embracing  a great 
number  of  occupations  or  pastimes,  to  which  we  cannot 
make  a more  particular  allusion,  closes  with  a funeral  pro- 
cession, into  which  all  the  pageantry  and  magnificence  of 
Egyptian  ceremonial  are  introduced,  accompanied  with  the 
several  emblems  which  were  employed  of  old  to  denote  the 
duties  of  this  life  and  the  hopes  of  the  next.* 

Leaving  the  instructive  grottoes  of  Eleithias,  we  proceed 
to  Edfou,  the  Apollinopolis  Magna  of  the  Greeks,  which 
presents  several  architectural  remains  worthy  of  notice. 
There  are  two  temples  in  a state  of  great  preservation  ; one 
of  them  consisting  of  high  pyramidal  propyla,  a pronaos, 
portico,  and  sekos,  the  form  most  generally  used  in  Egypt ; 
the  other  is  periptoral,  and  is  at  the  same  time  distinguished 
by  having,  on  its  several  columns,  the  appalling  figure  of 
Typhon,  the  emblem  of  the  Evil  Principle. 

The  pyramidal  propylon  which  forms  the  principal 
entrance  to  the  greater  temple  is  one  of  the  most  imposing 
monuments  extant  of  Egyptian  architecture.  Each  of  the 
sides  is  a hundred  feet  in  length,  thirty  wide,  and  a hundred 
high.  Many  of  the  figures  sculptured  on  it  are  thirty  feet 
in  height,  and  are  executed  in  so  masterly  and  spirited  a 
style  as  to  add  considerably  to  the  grand  effect  of  the 
building.  In  each  division  there  is  a staircase  of  150  or 
160  steps,  which  conduct  the  visiter  into  spacious  apart- 


Egyptiaca,  p.  92. 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART,  ETC. 


203 


ments  at  different  elevations.  The  horizontal  sections  of 
each  wing  diminish  gradually  from  100  feet  by  30,  to  83  by 
20,  as  will  appear  to  the  eye  from  the  accompanying  plate ; 
although  the  solidity  and  height  of  the  propylon  give  it  more 
the  aspect  of  a fortress  or  place  of  defence  than  of  the 
approach  to  a religious  edifice.  As  an  explanation  of  this 
peculiarity,  we  are  told  that  the  addition  of  these  gateways 
to  a temple  was  permitted  as  a favour  to  such  of  the  ancient 
kings  of  Egypt  as,  for  their  pious  and  beneficent  actions, 
became  entitled  to  perpetuate  their  names  in  the  mansions 
of  their  gods.  The  Ptolemies,  who  claimed  the  right  of 
sovereignty  from  conquest,  indulged  in  the  same  mag- 
nificence, and  built  porticoes,  propyla,  and  even  temples. 
Cleopatra,  in  her  misfortunes,  is  said  to  have  removed  wfith 
the  most  valuable  part  of  her  property  to  an  edifice  of  a 
very  extraordinary  size  and  structure,  which  she  had  for- 
merly erected  near  the  fane  of  Isis.  Most  probably,  as  Mr. 
Hamilton  thinks,  it  was  a propylon  of  the  kind  just  described. 
Nothing  could  be  better  adapted  for  her  purpose  ; inasmuch 
as  the  variety  of  apartments  offered  every  convenience  that 
could  be  desired,  and  when  the  small  door  at  the  bottom  of 
the  staircase  was  closed,  it  was  perfectly  inaccessible. 

In  no  part  of  Egypt  are  more  colossal  sculptures  seen  on 
the  walls  of  a public  building  than  on  the  larger  temple  at 
Edfou.  These,  we  are  told,  are  extremely  well  executed, 
and  in  some  cases  the  colours  are  still  completely  unchanged. 
Priests  are  seen  paying  divine  honours  to  the  Scarabaeus, 
or  beetle,  placed  upon  an  altar, — an  insect  which  is  said  to 
have  been  typical  ©f  the  sun,  either  because  it  changes  its 
appearance  and  place  of  abode  every  six  months,  or  because 
it  is  wonderfully  productive.*  We  regret  to  find  that  both 
the  temples,  though  well  preserved,  are  almost  concealed 
among  heaps  of  dirt  and  rubbish  ; indeed  the  terrace  of  the 
larger  one  is  occupied  by  several  mud  cottages  belonging  to 
the  villagers,  and  the  interior  chambers  of  the  sekos  are 
indiscriminately  used  as  sinks,  granaries,  or  stables. 

Hadjur  Silsili  would  not  detain  the  traveller  in  his  pro- 
gress up  the  Nile,  were  it  not  for  the  immense  quarries  from 
which,  it  is  very  probable,  were  hewn  at  different  times 
those  remarkable  columns,  statues,  and  obelisks  which  lend 


Egyptiaca,  p.  88 ; Denon,  vol.  ii.  p.  184. 


204 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


to  Tfrebes,  Dendera,  and  Hermonthis  their  chief  attraction 
even  at  the  present  day.  Sphinxes,  monolithic  temples, 
and  other  monuments  of  Egyptian  architecture,  in  an  un- 
finished state,  are  still  found  near  the  rocks  out  of  which 
they  were  cut.  There  is  a large  mass  of  stone,  eighteen 
feet  in  every  direction,  supported  only  by  a pillar  of  white 
earth  three  feet  in  diameter, — serving  as  an  example  of  that 
peculiar  vanity  which  has  been  attributed  to  the  Egyptians, 
and  which  made  them  attract  the  admiration  of  posterity 
by  works  of  the  boldest  design,  and  requiring  the  application 
of  the  most  extraordinary  mechanical  powers. 

Koum  Ombos,  supposed  to  represent  the  ancient  capital 
of  the  Ombite  Nome,  attracts  notice  by  the  remains  of  a mag- 
nificent temple.  The  faqade  consists  of  a portico  of  fifteen 
columns,  five  in  front  and  three  deep,  thirteen  of  which  are 
still  standing.  The  ornaments  above  the  entrances  are 
equally  rich  and  highly  finished.  Towards  the  north-west 
angle  of  the  enclosure  is  a small  temple  of  Isis,  the  capitals 
of  which  are  square,  and  have  on  each  of  the  four  sides  the 
countenance  of  the  goddess  beautifully  carved.  The  sculp- 
tures on  the  walls  are  very  numerous,  and  even  now,  at  the 
end  of  two  thousand  years,  preserve  the  brilliancy  of  their 
first  colouring.* 

Es  Souan,  a town  of  which  the  origin  is  comparatively 
modem,  stands  near  the  site  formerly  occupied  by  the  ancient 
Syene.  The  decline  of  commercial  intercourse  between 
Egypt  and  Ethiopia  has  gradually  reduced  this  place  to  the 
condition  of  a poor  village,  subsisting  on  the  scanty  portion  of 
cultivable  land  that  spreads  out  between  the  river  and  the 
rocks  of  the  desert.  On  the  acclivity  of  an  adjoining  hill 
is  an  ancient  temple  of  small  dimensions,  and  differing 
somewhat  in  form  from  similar  monuments  in  Egypt ; but, 
being  buried  in  rubbish  up  to  the  capitals  of  the  columns 
and  the  architrave,  it  has  not  been  minutely  examined  by 
recent  travellers.  Pococke  imagined  it  to  be  the  once  cele- 
brated observatory  of  Syene,  although  no  pains  were  taken 
to  ascertain  its  precise  structure  or  object.  The  position 
of  the  famous  well  remains  equally  unknown.  In  fact, 
there  is  no  approach  to  agreement  among  observers  as  to 

* It  was  dedicated  in  the  reign  of  King  Ptolemy  and  Queen  Cleopatra, 
his  sister.— See  Hamilton's  Egyptiaca,  p.  75. 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT. 


205 


the  northern  limit  of  the  torrid  zone,  the  place  where  the 
disk  of  the  sun  was  reflected  from  the  surface  of  the  water 
on  the  day  of  the  summer  solstice.  The  calculations  of 
Bruce  led  him  to  believe  that  Es  Souan  is  situated  in  lati- 
tude 23°  28' ; whereas  Nouet,  a French  astronomer,  asserts 
that  its  true  parallel  is  in  latitude  24°  8'  6".  But  it  ought 
to  be  kept  in  mind  that  Syen6  stood  a little  farther  towards 
the  south  than  the  town  which  now  represents  it  ; while  it 
is  not  improbable  that  the  point  which  marked  the  return 
of  the  solar  orb,  in  his  annual  course,  may  have  been  fixed 
at  the  remotest  extremity  of  the  ancient  city. 

The  quarries  of  Syene  have  been  long  celebrated,  and 
sufficient  vestiges  of  them  still  remain  to  render  it  credible 
that  they  furnished  the  materials  for  the  colossal  monuments 
of  Egypt.  They  are  seen  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  on 
the  east,  and  some  of  them  are  close  to  the  river.  The 
marks  of  the  chisels  and  drills  are  distinctly  visible,  as  well 
as  of  the  powerful  wedges  with  which,  when  the  sides  were 
cleared,  the  blocks  were  started  from  their  bed.  In  one 
quarry  there  was  found  a half-finished  obelisk  between  70 
and  80  feet  long,  and  10  feet  broad.  In  others  were  col- 
umns in  a rough  state,  possessing  similar  dimensions  ; while 
along  the  breast  of  the  hill  were  observed  the  marks  of 
immense  blocks,  thirty  and  forty  feet  in  length,  which  had 
been  separated  from  the  rock. 

The  island  of  Elephantine  is  much  richer  in  architectural 
remains  than  the  town  we  have  just  described.  Romans 
and  Saracens,  it  is  true,  have  done  all  in  their  power  to 
deface  or  to  conceal  them  ; but,  as  Denon  remarks,  the 
Egyptian  monuments  continue  devoted  to  posterity,  and 
have  resisted  equally  the  ravages  of  man  and  of  time.  In 
the  midst  of  a vast  field  of  bricks,  and  other  pieces  of  baked 
earth,  a very  ancient  temple  is  still  left  standing,  surrounded 
with  a pilastered  gallery  and  two  columns  in  the  portico. 
Nothing  is  wanting  but  two  pilasters  on  the  left  angle  of 
this  ruin.  Other  edifices  had  been  attached  to  it  at  a 
later  period,  but  only  some  fragments  were  remaining, 
which  could  give  no  idea  of  their  form  when  perfect, — 
proving  only  that  these  accessary  parts  were  much  larger 
than  the  original  sanctuary. — Could  this  be  the  temple  of 
Cneph,  the  good  genius,  that  one  of  all  the  Egyptian  gods 
who  approaches  the  nearest  to  our  ideas  of  the  Supreme 


206 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART 


Being  1 Or  is  it  the  temple  of  this  deity  which  is  placed  six 
hundred  paces  farther  to  the  north,  having  the  same  form 
and  size,  though  more  in  ruins, — all  the  ornaments  of  which 
are  accompanied  by  the  serpent,  the  emblem  of  wisdom  and 
eternity,  and  peculiarly  that  of  the  god  now  named  1 
Judging  from  what  he  had  seen  of  Egyptian  temples,  M. 
Denon  is  disposed  to  think  that  this  supposed  fane  of  Cneph 
belongs  to  the  class  which  were  used  in  the  earliest  times, 
and  is  absolutely  the  same  species  of  building  as  the  temple 
at  Gornoo,  which  appeared  to  him  the  most  ancient  in 
Thebes.  The  chief  difference  in  the  sculpture  of  this  at 
Elephantine  is,  that  the  figures  have  more  life,  the  drapery 
is  more  flowing,  and  falls  into  a better  form  of  composition/* 

The  fascination  attending  this  review  of  the  monuments 
of  ancient  art  has  perhaps  carried  us  somewhat  farther  than 
is  quite  consistent  with  our  plan,  which  compels  us  to 
abstain  from  minute  details,  however  interesting  and  agree- 
able. There  is  no  other  nation  in  the  world,  if  we  except 
those  on  the  eastern  borders  of  Asia, — whose  real  history 
has  not  yet  been  made  known  to  the  European  reader, — 
which  could  present  such  a retrospect  at  the  same  early 
period,  or  gratify  the  traveller  with  the  display  of  so  much 
magnificence  and  beauty.  Nor  must  our  opinion  of  Egyp- 
tian science,  art,  and  general  civilization  be  limited  to  the 
rigid  inferences  which  alone  an  examination  of  their  actual 
remains  might  appear  to  justify.  On  the  contrary,  we  are 
entitled  to  assume  the  most  liberal  rule  of  reasoning  in  regard 
to  the  acquirements  of  a people  who  surpassed,  to  such  an 
extent,  all  their  contemporaries  westward  of  the  Arabian 
Desert ; and  to  conclude  that  in  other  matters,  the  memorials 
of  which  could  not  be  conveyed  to  posterity  by  the  architect 
or  the  sculptor,  the  priests  and  sovereigns  of  the  Nile  had 
made  a corresponding  progress. 

For  example,  we  are  told,  that  in  the  time  of  Moses  the 
land  of  Egypt  was  celebrated  for  fine  linen, — a notice  which, 
to  a hasty  reader,  conveys  only  that  simple  fact,  but  which, 
to  the  philosopher  who  has  reflected  on  the  slow  and  gradual 
steps  by  which  nations  advance  to  maturity,  suggests  a 
state  of  improvement  inseparable  from  an  established 
government  and  the  exercise  of  good  laws.  Our  meaning 


Denon,  vol.  ii.  p.  32. 


IN  VARIOUS  PARTS  OF  EGYPT 


20? 


will  receive  a suitable  illustration  from  the  following  passage 
in  the  works  of  Dr.  Adam  Smith : “ The  woollen  coat 
which  covers  the  day-labourer,  coarse  and  rough  as  it  may 
appear,  is  the  produce  of  the  joint  labour  of  a great  number 
of  workmen.  The  shepherd,  the  sorter  of  the  wool,  the 
wool-comber  or  carder,  the  dier,  the  spinner,  the  weaver, 
the  fuller,  the  dresser,  with  many  others,  must  all  join  their 
different  arts  in  order  to  complete  even  this  homely  produc- 
tion. What  a variety  of  labour,  too,  is  necessary  in  order 
to  produce  the  tools  of  the  meanest  of  those  workmen ! 
To  say  nothing  of  such  complicated  machines  as  the  ship 
of  the  sailor,  the  mill  of  the  fuller,  or  even  the  loom  of  the 
weaver,  let  us  consider  only  what  a variety  of  labour  is 
requisite  in  order  to  form  that  very  simple  machine,  the 
shears  with  which  the  shepherd  clips  the  wool.  The  miner, 
the  builder  of  the  furnace  for  smelting  the  ore,  the  feller 
of  the  timber,  the  burner  of  the  charcoal  to  be  made  use  of 
in  the  smelting-house,  the  brickmaker,  the  bricklayer,  the 
workmen  who  attend  the  furnace,  the  millwright,  the  forger, 
the  smith,  must  all  of  them  join  their  different  arts  in  order 
to  produce  them.  Were  we  to  examine  in  the  same  manner 
all  the  different  parts  of  his  dress  and  household  furniture, 
the  coarse  linen  shirt  which  he  wears  next  his  skin,  the 
shoes  which  cover  his  feet,  the  bed  which  he  lies  on,  toge- 
ther with  the  tools  of  all  the  different  workmen  employed  in 
producing  these  different  conveniences,  we  should  be  sensi- 
ble that,  without  the  assistance  and  co-operation  of  many 
thousands,  the  very  meanest  person  in  a civilized  country 
could  not  be  provided,  even  according  to  what  we  very 
falsely  imagine  the  easy  and  simple  manner  in  which  he  is 
usually  accommodated.”* 

Let  the  reader  transfer  this  reasoning  to  the  “fine  linen” 
of  Egypt,  and  he  will  immediately  see  the  conclusions  to 
which  we  have  alluded.  Many  arts  must  have  arrived  at 
great  perfection  before  the  commodity  mentioned  by  the 
Hebrew  legislator  could  have  become  an  object  of  mer- 
chandise or  of  foreign  commerce.  How  much  skill,  too,  in 
the  art  of  tempering  metals  was  necessary  to  prepare  tools 
for  the  workmen  who  carved  the  hardest  granite,  and  covered 
with  sculptures  the  walls  and  ceilings  of  the  most  ancient 


* Wealth  of  Nations,  yoI.  i.  p.  17. 


208 


REMAINS  OF  ANCIENT  ART,  ETC. 


temples ! Even  the  improvements  of  modem  Europe  supply 
not  means  for  equalling  the  ingenious  labours  of  the  Egyp- 
tian artists.  What  a series  of  efforts  must  have  preceded 
the  excellence  which  is  preserved  for  our  admiration  in  the 
temples  of  Karnac  and  Luxor,  in  the  tombs  of  Gomoo, 
and  even  in  the  grottoes  of  Eleithias  ! How  many  genera- 
tions must  have  contributed  their  share  to  this  perfection  ' 
The  contemplative  mind  seeks  refuge  in  a remoter  antiquity 
than  is  allowed  by  the  annals  of  the  neighbouring  tribes 
of  Syria  and  of  Greece  ; some  of  whom,  instead  of  imi- 
tating the  arts  which  would  at  once  have  secured  to  them 
the  comforts  and  dignity  of  social  life,  derived  nothing  from 
their  intercourse  with  Egypt  except  the  absurd  ceremonies 
of  a gross  superstition,  which  degraded  the  understanding 
while  it  polluted  the  heart. 

It  was  our  intention  to  have  entered  at  some  length  into 
a history  of  the  commercial  relations  which  appear  to  have 
subsisted  at  an  early  period  between  Egypt  and  the  nations 
of  the  East,  and  which  were  maintained,  during  several 
centuries,  by  a regular  intercourse  as  well  by  land  as  by 
the  Erythrcean  Sea  and  the  Arabian  Gulf.  But  we  must 
content  ourselves  with  a simple  reference  to  the  learned 
volumes  of  Dr.  Vincent  on  the  Commerce  and  Navigation 
of  the  Ancients,  and  to  Dr.  Robertson’s  Historical  Disquisi- 
tion concerning  Ancient  India ; where  is  to  be  found  the 
most  authentic  information  that  we  possess  on  this  im- 
portant subject,  recommended,  too,  by  very  luminous  and 
satisfactory  reasoning. 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF  MODERN  EGYPT. 


209 


CHAPTER  VII. 

The  Civil  History  of  Modern  Egypt. 

Saracenic  Dynasties — Foundation  of  Cairo— Crusaders— Saladin  the 
Great— Siege  of  Ptolemais — Death  of  Saladin— Crusaders  defeated— 
Rise  of  Mamlouks— The  Borghites — Monguls  and  Tatars— Ibrahim 
Bey — Ali  Bey ; his  Syrian  Campaign ; his  Death  and  Character — 
Mohammed  Bey— Ibrahim  and  Mourad— Invasion  by  the  French — 
Defeat  at  Acre — Victory  of  Lord  Nelson — Battle  of  Alexandria,  and 
Death  of  Abercrombie— Evacuation  of  Egypt  by  the  French — Kurouf 
Pasha — Mohammed  Ali ; Success  against  the  Beys ; appointed  Pasha 
— British  Expedition  in  1807 — Massacre  of  Mamlouks— History  of 
Wahabees;  defeated  by  Ibrahim  Pasha —European  Tactics  introduced 
— Character  of  Mohammed  Ali. 

The  enterprising  spirit  breathed  into  the  Saracens  by 
their  military  prophet  soon  made  itself  felt  in  the  rapid  con- 
quests which  they  effected  in  all  the  surrounding  countries. 
Egypt,  as  a province  of  the  Roman  empire  which  was 
already  about  to  fall  in  pieces  by  its  own  weight,  could  not 
resist  their  arms,  led  by  the  valiant  and  politic  Amru. 
Aided  by  treachery  this  fortunate  general  got  possession  of 
Alexandria;  to  the  inhabitants  of  which  he  presented  the 
humiliating  alternative  of  paying  a heavy  tribute  year  after 
year,  or  of  embracing  the  Mohammedan  faith  and  submit- 
ting to  its  painful  ritual.  At  the  same  time  the  valuable 
library  which  adorned  that  city  fell  a prey  to  the  religious 
bigotry  of  the  conquerors,  who  thought  that  any  addition 
to  the  knowledge  bequeathed  to  them  by  the  author  of  the 
Koran  was  either  superfluous  or  positively  sinful. 

The  frequent  contentions,  which  ensued  during  the  eighth 
century  for  the  honours  of  the  caliphate  afforded  to  Egypt 
an  opportunity  of  occasionally  asserting  its  independence  ; 
but  no  sooner  was  the  question  of  supreme  power  deter- 
mined by  arms  or  by  treaty  than  it  was  again  compelled  to 
submit  to  the  will  of  the  victor.  Among  the  various  dynas- 
ties which  assumed  the  reins  of  government  were  the 
descendants  of  Ali  the  son-in-law  of  the  prophet,  of  Abbas 
his  uncle,  and  of  Fatima  his  daughter, — who  continued  to 
S3 


210 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


urge  their  respective  claims  during  several  generations,  and 
to  expel  one  another  in  their  turn  from  the  thrones  of 
Damascus  and  of  Bagdad. 

The  reader  could  take  no  interest  in  the  obscure  wars 
and  sanguinary  revolutions  which  were  directed  by  the 
powerful  families  of  Aglab,  Ommiah,  and  Ikshed,  who  not 
only  seized  the  provincial  authority  along  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  but  even  alarmed  the  holy  successors  of 
Mohammed  in  Syria  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris.  At 
length,  towards  the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  the  chief  of 
the  Fatimite  branch  removed  the  seat  of  his  power  from 
Cyrene,  where  it  had  been  long  established,  to  Cahira  the 
City  of  Victory,  the  Grand  Cairo  of  modern  times.  Other 
princes  had  assumed  independence  in  Egypt,  and  refused 
to  acknowledge  the  temporal  supremacy  of  the  Caliph  of 
Bagdad,  though  the  title  of  the  latter,  in  his  capacity  of 
Imaum  or  chief  priest  of  the  Mohammedans,  was  regu- 
larly recited  in  the  daily  prayers  of  the  faithful.  But 
the  African  usurper  at  length  interdicted  this  mark  of 
spiritual  allegiance,  and  demanded  as  his  own  right  all  the 
honours  which  belonged  to  the  lineal  descendant  of  the 
prophet. 

The  eleventh  century  brought  upon  Egypt  a succession 
of  calamities.  A dreadful  famine,  with  the  usual  accom- 
paniments of  plague  and  pestilence,  swept  off  great  multi- 
tudes, especially  in  the  maritime  districts  and  along  the 
Syrian  border.  This  destructive  visitation  was  succeeded 
by  one  hardly  less  to  be  deplored, — an  inroad  of  the  Turks, 
who  had  already  descended  from  the  extensive  plains  of 
Central  Asia  and  found  employment  at  the  court  of  the 
caliph  as  mercenary  soldiers.  They  had  resolved  to  avenge 
the  cause  of  their  master  on  his  rebellious  subjects  ; and 
with  this  view  they  committed  the  most  horrid  cruelties 
wherever  they  could  carry  their  arms,  setting  an  example 
of  a savage  warfare  long  unknown  to  the  country  which 
they  had  overrun,  and  thereby  rousing  against  themselves 
the  bitterest  resentment  and  detestation  of  the  whole  body 
of  the  people.  The  hosts  of  the  crusaders  arrived  to  com- 
plete the  misery  which  the  northern  barbarians  had  com- 
menced. Having  reduced  Pelusium  these  warriors  advanced 
against  Cairo,  which  they  threatened  with  a similar  fate  ; 
but  learning  that  a Syrian  army  was  on  its  march  to  cut 


MODERN  EGYPT.  211 

off  their  retreat,  they  accepted  a sum  of  money  and  raised 
the  siege. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century  the  descendants 
of  Fatima  ceased  to  reign  over  Egypt.  Aladid,  the  last  of 
the  race,  appears  to  have  intrusted  the  government  to  the 
wisdom  of  his  viziers,  who,  it  is  manifest,  laboured  both  at 
home  and  abroad  to  establish  their  own  power  rather  than 
that  of  their  master ; and  as  he  had  no  near  relations,  his 
death  was  the  signal  for  his  ambitious  minister  to  seat  him- 
self on  the  empty  throne.  This  founder  of  a new  dynasty 
was  the  renowned  Saladin,  whose  name  is  so  closely  asso- 
ciated with  the  most  brilliant  exploits  of  the  Mohammedan 
arms.  He  began  by  seizing  the  wealth  and  securing  the 
strong  places  of  the  kingdom, — throwing  at  the  same  time 
into  confinement  all  whom  he  suspected  of  being  the  par- 
tisans of  the  late  monarch.  Not  inheriting  the  blood  of 
the  prophet,  he  did  not  assume  the  title  of  caliph,  which 
implies  the  sacerdotal  as  well  as  the  kingly  office ; but  con- 
tented himself  with  the  denomination  of  sultan,  leaving  the 
priestly  duties  to  be  discharged  by  some  individual  sprung 
from  the  sacred  lineage* 

Though  Saladin  was  acknowledged  as  sovereign  of  Egypt 
by  many  of  the  neigbouring  states,  and  even  received  the 
sanction  of  the  caliph  of  Bagdad,  his  government  was  not 
yet  firmly  established.  There  were  two  powerful  factions 
opposed  to  his  authority  ; the  adherents  of  Aladid’s  family, 
who  wished  to  retain  the  sceptre  in  the  F atimite  succession, 
and  the  king  of  Syria,  who  dreaded  the  ascendency  of  so 
warlike  a neighbour.  The  first  favoured  the  pretensions 
of  an  adventurer  who  claimed  the  throne,  and  even  enabled 
him  to  appear  in  the  field  at  the  head  of  100,000  men.  But 
a complete  victory  soon  relieved  the  new  sultan  from  all 
apprehension  in  this  quarter.  The  Christians,  under  the 
command  of  William,  king  of  Sicily,  next  engaged  his 
attention,  having  laid  siege  to  Alexandria  both  by  land  and 
sea.  Saladin  flew  to  the  relief  of  a place  the  preservation 
of  which  was  so  important  at  once  to  his  reputation  and  to 
the  success  of  his  future  plans.  He  had  mustered  a force 
sufficient  to  justify  the  hazard  of  a battle ; but  before  he 
could  accomplish  his  object,  the  crusaders,  smitten  with  a 
sudden  panic,  commenced  a hurried  retreat,  leaving  behind 
them  their  stores,  their  baggage,  and  even  their  military 


212 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


engines.  The  court  of  Damascus,  still  cherishing  a feeling 
of  deep-rooted  jealousy,  endeavoured  to  strengthen  their 
interests  by  an  extended  alliance  among  the  surrounding 
principalities ; watching  eagerly  for  an  opportunity  to 
check  the  views  and  disappoint  the  ambition  of  the  Egyp- 
tian sultan.  At  length  they  resolved  to  commit  their  cause 
to  the  fortune  of  war.  A general  engagement  ensued, 
which  terminated  so  decidedly  in  favour  of  Saladin  that  he 
returned  from  it  the  undisputed  master  of  the  whole 
of  Syria. 

His  next  cares  were  directed  to  the  enlargement  and 
fortification  of  Cairo,  which  he  had  determined  to  render  a 
capital  worthy  of  his  extensive  dominions,  and  fit  to  be 
compared  with  the  more  ancient  cities  adorned  by  Menes, 
Sesostris,  and  Ptolemy.  He  encouraged  the  schools  and 
literature  of  the  country,  and  in  many  other  respects 
showed  qualities  suited  to  a tune  of  peace  ; but  he  was  soon 
torn  away  from  his  schemes  of  domestic  improvement  to 
the  din  of  arms  and  the  ravages  of  war.  Having  obtained 
the  ascendency  in  Syria,  he  resolved  to  extend  his  power 
also  into  Palestine ; and  with  this  view  he  led  his  troops 
against  the  numerous  host  of  the  crusaders  who  had  again 
joined  their  banners  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land. 
His  first  efforts  in  the  field  were  not  attended  with  success. 
The  Christians,  animated  with  an  equal  courage  and  long 
accustomed  to  the  use  of  their  weapons,  repelled  the  attacks 
of  the  sultan  with  so  much  fury  that  he  saw  his  fine  army 
perish  before  his  eyes,  either  in  the  battle  or  while 
attempting  to  retreat  across  the  desert  into  Egypt. 

But  his  spirit  could  not  be  subdued  by  temporary 
reverses.  Aided  by  commanders  who  shared  his  energy 
and  ambition,  he  resumed  offensive  operations  both  by  sea 
and  land ; recovered  all  the  ground  he  had  lost  in  the 
former  campaign ; and  finally  gained  a decisive  victory 
over  the  allied  forces  led  by  Lusignan,  king  of  Jerusalem, 
and  by  Arnold,  lord  of  Karac,  both  of  whom  were  taken 
prisoners.  The  former  was  treated  with  respect,  but  the 
latter  was  put  to  death  by  Saladin’s  own  hand,  because  he 
had  inflicted  many  injuries  on  the  followers  of  Mohammed. 
Ptolemais,  Neapolis,  Csesarea,  and  other  cities  fell  into  the 
power  of  the  Egyptian  ruler,  who,  finding  nothing  to 
oppose  his  progress,  marched  to  the  capital,  which  he  im- 


MODERN  EGYPT. 


213 


mediately  invested.  The  garrison  was  numerous,  and 
made  a desperate  defence  ; but  after  the  conqueror  had 
effected  a breach  in  the  walls,  and  was  on  the  point 
of  entering  the  town,  the  governor  proposed  a capitulation. 

Saladin,  enraged  at  the  delay  occasioned  by  a protracted 
siege,  refused  to  accept  the  terms , vowing  that  he  would 
sack  and  utterly  demolish  the  Holy  City,  though  almost 
equally  venerated  by  Mohammedans  and  by  Christians. 
His  cruel  threatenings  roused  the  spirit  of  the  defenders, 
who  announced  their  resolution  to  put  5000  Mussulman 
prisoners  to  death , and  in  order  that  no  European  might 
be  exposed  to  their  revenge,  they  would  also  deprive  of  life 
their  own  wives  and  children.  They  added,  that  with  the 
view  of  disappointing  their  enemy  in  the  expectation 
of  booty,  they  would  destroy  every  thing  valuable  within  the 
walls;  level  the  rock  which  the  disciples  of  the  prophet 
held  sacred  ; and  then  sally  out  in  a body  on  the  besiegers, 
either  to  purchase  victory  or  to  sell  their  lives  at  the  dearest 
price.  The  knowledge  of  this  resolution  moved  Saladin  to 
more  reasonable  terms  ; and  he  consented  that  the  garrison, 
ns  well  as  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem,  should  have  their 
lives  spared  on  the  condition  of  paying  a liberal  ransom  in 
money. 

The  wars  which  Saladin  carried  on  against  the  heroes 
of  the  Crusade  do  not  properly  fall  within  the  limits  of  this 
volume,  more  especially  as  the  scene  of  conflict  was  chosen 
in  Syria  rather  than  in  Egypt.  Suffice  it  to  mention,  that 
when  he  had  succeeded  in  establishing  his  authority  from 
Thebes  to  Damascus,  his  territories  were  once  more  in- 
vaded by  a Christian  armament,  conducted  by  the  Emperor 
of  Germany,  the  King  of  France,  and  the  celebrated  Richard 
Cceur  de  Lion,  the  sovereign  of  England.  The  combined 
forces  encamped  before  Ptolemais, — a stronghold  which  is 
better  known  by  its  modern  name  of  Acre, — in  which  the 
sultan  had  collected  a numerous  army,  and  made  prepara- 
tions for  a vigorous  defence.  Want  of  harmony  among  the 
European  powers  enabled  him  to  resist  their  attacks  a long 
time  without  incurring  any  serious  loss  ; and  it  was  not 
until  the  approach  of  famine  had  thinned  his  ranks  and 
depressed  the  spirits  of  the  survivors,  that  he  consented  to 
offer  conditions.  Upon  the  promise  of  refunding  a part 
of  the  treasure  which  at  different  times  he  had  extorted 


214 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


from  the  allies,  he  was  allowed  to  march  oat  with  the 
honours  of  war ; delivering  to  the  victors  the  possession  of  a 
town,  the  siege  of  which  had  involved  the  sacrifice  of  three 
hundred  thousand  men,  including  the  flower  of  European 
chivalry  and  the  best  warriors  of  the  East. 

After  numerous  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  in  which  his 
active  valour,  aided  by  the  jealousies  that  distracted  the 
counsels  of  his  antagonists,  had  generally  secured  to  him 
the  advantage  in  the  field,  he  died  in  the  fifty-fifth  year 
of  his  age.  His  son,  who  succeeded  him  on  the  throne 
of  Egypt,  appears  to  have  possessed  his  ambition  without 
his  talents.  But  Alcamel,  to  whom  the  sceptre  fell  about 
the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  threw  a lustre  on 
his  reign  by  his  success  in  repelling  the  crusaders  ; who 
for  the  fifth  time  invaded  the  kingdom  of  the  sultans. 
Damietta  had  surrendered  to  the  Christians,  who,  elated 
by  the  prosperous  commencement  of  the  campaign,  advanced 
up  the  Nile,  and  meditated  the  entire  conquest  of  the 
country.  But  the  issue  of  a general  action,  which  soon 
afterward  took  place,  was  so  disastrous  to  the  foreigners 
that  they  were  compelled  to  sue  for  mercy,  and  to  accept 
the  conditions  of  a treaty  more  honourable  to  the  clemency 
of  the  victors  than  to  the  ability  of  the  European  com- 
manders. 

Alcamel  died  at  Damascus  in  1238,  and  Aladel,  one 
of  his  sons,  was  raised  to  the  throne’;  but  Nojmoddin,  the 
eldest  brother,  laid  claim  to  the  kingdom.  A bloody  con- 
test would  probably  have  ensued  had  not  the  younger 
prince,  in  the  mean  time,  disappeared  or  died, — an  event 
which  led  to  the  peaceable  accession  of  the  senior  claimant. 
Nojmoddin,  like  his  predecessor,  soon  acquired  great  influ- 
ence with  the  leaders  of  the  Crusade  ; for  Richard,  Earl 
of  Cornwall,  perceiving  that  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  possessed 
more  power  than  the  Syrian  lords  of  Karac  and  Damascus, 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  him,  and  thereby  ensured 
protection  to  the  Christian  pilgrims  when  on  their  way  to 
the  holy  sepulchre. 

In  this  unsettled  state  of  affairs  Nojmoddin  passed  into 
Syria,  determined,  with  the  help  of  some  rude  tribes  who 
occupied  the  neighbouring  desert,  to  subdue  the  faithless 
armies  of  Damascus.  A battle,  in  which  he  found  himself 
opposed  by  certain  European  auxiliaries,  crowned  his 


MODERN  EGYPT. 


215 


enterprise  with  success,  and  opened  up  a path  to  still  more 
important  advantages ; but,  in  the  mean  time,  a new  host 
of  crusaders  arrived  at  the  port  of  Damietta,  having  Louis 
the  Ninth  of  France  for  their  leader.  In  the  absence 
of  the  sultan,  and  while  the  nation  was  altogether  unpre- 
pared for  such  an  inroad,  the  French  king  made  considerable 
progress  ; several  towns  fell,  and  the  inhabitants  fled  for 
refuge  into  the  upper  part  of  the  country.  Nojmoddin, 
who  was  busily  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Emessa,  hastened 
towards  home  to  save  his  people  from  the  horrors  of  an 
utter  conquest ; but,  harassed  by  fatigue  and  anxiety,  he 
sank  by  the  way,  leaving  the  government  to  his  son,  an 
inexperienced  youth.  The  enemy  still  pushed  into  the 
interior,  apprehending  no  serious  opposition,  when  to  their 
surprise  they  found  themselves  in  presence  of  a formidable 
army,  raised  by  the  exertions  of  the  sultan’s  widow,  the 
famous  Shagir  Aider.  Louis  was  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner ; while  his  followers,  after  having  endured  the 
greatest  privations,  were  glad  to  throw  themselves  upon 
the  compassion  of  the  natives,  whose  fields  they  had  laid 
waste,  and  whose  houses  they  had  plundered. 

This  period  is  remarkable  for  the  earliest  accession  to 
power  of  that  celebrated  class  of  men  called  Mamlouks. 
Saladin,  who  as  a usurper  put  little  confidence  in  the 
native  troops  of  Egypt,  placed  around  his  person  a guard 
of  foreigners,  composed  of  slaves  purchased  or  made  cap- 
tives in  the  provinces  which  border  on  the  southern  shores 
of  the  Caspian  Sea.  Successive  sultans  had  increased  the 
power  of  these  armed  attendants  by  new  privileges ; and 
hence,  as  has  always  happened  in  every  similar  case,  they 
acquired  at  length  the  entire  disposal  of  the  sovereign 
authority.  Ibeg,  one  of  their  number,  became  regent  during 
the  minority  of  the  prince  ; and  upon  the  death  of  that  boy 
he  married  the  queen-mother,  and  finally  stepped  into  the 
throne.  Carried  off  by  assassination  he  left  the  supreme 
power  to  his  son,  who  only  enjoyed  it  during  a very  short 
period ; but  notwithstanding  the  convulsions  which  inces- 
santly shook  the  state,  and  the  alarming  progress  of  the 
Monguls  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Mohammedan  empire,  the 
Mamlouk  dynasty  directed  the  affairs  of  Egypt  not  less  than 
one  hundred  and  twenty  years. 

But  the  inheritance  of  the  Pharaohs  was  now  doomed  to 


216 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


pass  from  the  hands  of  one  class  of  slaves  to  be  seized  by 
another  not  less  vile  and  degraded.  Among  the  captives 
annually  brought  into  Egypt  were  numerous  young  men 
from  that  district  of  Western  Asia  which  in  our  days  is 
denominated  Circassia.  Being  enrolled  as  soldiers,  they 
were  stationed  in  the  several  fortresses  and  strongholds 
which  had  been  erected  throughout  the  kingdom  with  the 
view  of  checking  the  insubordination  of  the  people  ; and, 
accordingly,  from  the  name  of  such  castles  in  the  Coptic 
tongue,  they  were  denominated  Borghites,  or  garrison 
troops,  to  distinguish  them  from  those  who  served  in  the 
field.  By  a captain  of  this  militia,  whose  name  was  Barcok, 
the  Mamlouk  dynasty,  properly  so  called,  was  brought  to 
an  end,  and  a new  race  of  Borghite  princes  elevated  to  the 
vacant  throne.  His  valour  and  wisdom  entitled  him  to  the 
place  which  he  usurped,  and  he  proved  a benefactor  to  the 
unhappy  country  wThich  he  could  hardly  fail  to  despise. 

The  latter  part  of  the  fourteenth  century  witnessed  the 
first  menaces  of  those  warlike  hordes  which,  under  the 
various  designations  of  Monguls  and  Tatars,  carried  their 
arms  into  the  southern  provinces  of  Asia,  and  at  length 
conquered  settlements  in  the  richest  parts  of  Africa  and 
Europe.  Tamerlane,  who  had  already  overrun  the  fine 
countries  watered  by  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  was  desirous 
to  add  Syria  also  to  his  dominions ; and,  with  this  great 
object  in  view,  wras  directing  his  march  towards  the  w est, 
when,  finding  that  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  had  collected  a 
strong  force  at  Damascus  to  dispute  his  progress,  he  turned 
on  his  steps  and  sought  a less  formidable  enemy  near  the 
sources  of  the  river  Indus.  At  the  same  time  the  furious 
Bajazet,  at  the  head  of  his  Ottoman  levies,  was  spreading 
terror  upon  both  sides  of  the  Hellespont,  and  had  approached 
to  the  very  gates  of  Constantinople.  He  had,  indeed,  ex- 
pressed his  determination  to  reduce  that  city,  and  to  found 
his  government  upon  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  empire  ; in 
pursuance  of  w hich  plan  he  eagerly  solicited  the  friendship 
of  Barcok  and  the  blessing  of  the  caliph,  who,  in  his  capacity 
of  Imaum  or  chief  priest  of  the  Mohammedan  church,  kept 
his  usual  residence  at  Cairo.  The  fate  of  Egypt  appeared 
for  a time  inseparably  connected  with  the  policy  of  one  or 
other  of  these  warriors,  who  were  resolved  to  possess  it 
either  as  an  allied  or  as  a conquered  province.  But,  fortu- 


MODERN  EGYPT. 


217 


nately  for  the  peace  and  independence  of  that  country,  the 
armies  of  the  rival  barbarians  exhausted  themselves  in 
mutual  hostilities,  till,  after  various  success  on  either 
side,  Bajazet  was  taken  prisoner,  and  Tamerlane  relin- 
quished the  pursuit  of  military  fame.  Relieved  from  a con- 
federacy which  must  have  borne  it  down,  Egypt  preserved, 
a century  and  a half  longer,  under  a succession  of  very 
feeble  princes,  the  semblance  of  supreme  power ; when  at 
length,  in  1517,  the  victorious  arms  of  the  Turks  dethroned 
the  last  of  the  Borghite  dynasty,  and  reduced  his  kingdom 
to  the  condition  of  a province. 

In  the  most  perfect  form  of  the  Turkish  government  in 
Egypt  it  consisted  of  a divan,  or  council  of  regency,  com- 
posed of  those  who  commanded  the  military  bodies,- — the 
president,  in  all  cases,  being  the  pasha  or  viceroy.  From 
the  Mamlouk  beys,  who  presided  over  the  provinces,  were 
chosen  the  Sheik  el  Belled,  or  governor  of  Grand  Cairo ; 
the  Janizary  Aga,  or  commander  of  the  Janizaries  ; the 
Defturdar,  or  accountant-general ; the  Emir  el  Hadgi,  or 
conductor  of  the  caravan  ; the  Emir  el  Said,  or  governor  of 
Upper  Egypt ; and  the  Sheik  el  Bekheri,  or  governor  of  the 
sherifs. 

In  the  course  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  Soliman  the 
First  was  involved  in  war  with  the  great  European  powers, 
the  authority  of  the  Porte  in  Egypt  was  considerably  dimin- 
ished, while  several  important  changes  were  introduced  into 
the  local  government.  The  beys,  who  superintended  the 
twenty-four  departments  into  which  the  kingdom  was 
divided,  collected  the  revenues  of  their  respective  districts, 
and  thereby  acquired  a degree  of  influence  which  rendered 
them  equally  insolent  and  formidable.  The  heads  of  the 
seven  military  corps  and  the  pasha  becoming  excessively 
avaricious,  courted  the  favour  of  the  beys,  who  could  enforce 
the  payment  of  tribute  with  severity,  or  remit  it  in  part, 
according  to  their  pleasure.  By  indulging  the  members 
of  the  regency,  these  officers  in  their  turn  increased  in 
power  till  they  obtained  the  complete  disposal  of  public 
affairs.  The  subordinate  governors  had  originally  a few 
Mamlouks  or  slaves  at  their  command,  for  enabling  them 
to  make  their  authority  respected  in  the  provinces  where 
they  presided ; but  in  proportion  as  their  power  was  enlarged 
they  augmented  their  attendants,  and  by  that  means  added 


218 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


materially  to  their  military  strength  as  independent  rulers. 
When,  too,  a vacancy  occurred  in  the  government  of  a 
province,  the  most  influential  bey  had  his  favourite  Mamlouk 
appointed  to  the  office.  Such  an  election  still  farther 
augmented  his  authority ; and  by  pursuing  a similar  course, 
the  most  active  and  powerful  of  these  chiefs  acquired  a con- 
tinually increasing  influence  in  the  government,  and  their 
Mamlouks  at  length  became  the  only  efficient  soldiers  in 
the  state. 

By  means  similar  to  those  now  described,  Ibrahim,  one 
of  the  veteran  colonels  of  the  Janizaries,  succeeded,  about 
the  middle  of  last  century,’  in  rendering  himself  in  effect  the 
sovereign  of  Egypt.  He  had  so  multiplied  and  advanced 
his  enfranchised  Mamlouks,  that  of  the  twenty-four  beys  no 
fewer  than  eight  belonged  to  his  household  ; and  the  influ- 
ence connected  with  these  appointments  was  the  greater, 
inasmuch  as  the  pasha  always  left  vacancies  in  the  subordi- 
nate governments,  in  order  that  he  might  appropriate  the 
revenue  to  his  own  private  purposes.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  largesses  which  he  bestowed  on  the  officers  and  soldiers 
of  his  corps  had  firmly  attached  them  to  his  interest,  when 
Rodoan,  the  most  powerful  of  the  Azab  colonels,  devoted 
himself  to  his  cause,  and  thereby  completed  his  political 
ascendency.  The  pasha,  incapable  of  opposing  this  faction, 
was  no  more  than  a phantom  in  the  public  eye,  and  even 
the  orders  of  the  sultan  himself  were  lightly  regarded  when 
weighed  against  those  of  Ibrahim.  At  his  death,  which 
happened  in  1757,  his  slaves,  divided  among  themselves 
but  united  against  all  others,  continued  to  give  the  law. 
Rodoan,  who  had  succeeded  to  the  influence  of  his  col- 
league, was  expelled  and  slain  by  the  younger  beys  ; and 
during  the  period  of  ten  years  the  affairs  of  Egypt  were 
managed  by  a cabal,  whose  principal  motives,  veiled  by  the 
most  empty  pretensions  of  patriotism,  were  ambition  and 
revenge.  At  length  the  celebrated  Ali,  one  of  their  number, 
gained  a decided  superiority  over  his  rivals  ; and,  under  the 
successive  titles  of  Emir  Hadgi  and  Sheik  el  Belled,  and  by 
means  which  indicate  the  degraded  condition  of  all  classes 
of  the  people,  rendered  himself  absolute  master  of  the  whole 
country. 

The  birth  of  Ali  Bey,  like  that  of  the  Mamlouks  in  general, 
is  extremely  uncertain.  It  is  commonly  believed  in  Egypt 


MODERN  EGYPT. 


219 


that  he  was  the  son  of  a Circassian  peasant,  bought  or  cap- 
tured  as  a slave  when  about  twelve  years  of  age,  and  after- 
ward sold  at  Cairo  to  a Jew,  who  made  a present  of  him  to 
Ibrahim,  the  aspiring  chief  already  mentioned.  In  the 
house  of  his  patron  he  received  the  customary  education  of 
a page,  which  consists  in  horsemanship,  in  the  ready  use 
of  the  carbine,  pistol,  and  sabre,  in  throwing  the  lance,  and 
sometimes  in  a little  reading  and  writing.  In  these  exer- 
cises he  displayed  an  activity  and  fire  which  obtained  for 
him  the  surname  of  Djendali,  or  Madcap.  But  the  solicitude 
of  ambition  soon  moderated  this  excessive  warmth.  At  the 
age  of  eighteen  he  received  the  gift  of  manumission  from 
his  indulgent  master,  who  soon  afterward  appointed  him  to 
a government,  and  procured  for  him  a place  among  the 
twenty-four  beys,  at  once  the  tyrants  and  protectors  of  the 
unhappy  natives. 

The  death  of  Ibrahim,  we  have  remarked,  wos  a signal 
to  his  dependants  for  rapacity  and  intrigue.  Ali  Bey  was 
neither  the  least  active  nor  the  least  successful.  He  pre- 
cipitated Rodoan  from  his  guilty  elevation,  and  was  pre- 
paring to  realize  a plan  for  thinning  still  farther  the  ranks 
of  his  opponents,  when  he  was  compelled  to  leave  the  city 
and  take  refuge  in  a temporary  exile.  At  the  end  of  two 
years,  which  he  had  spent  in  making  the  necessary  arrange- 
ments, he  appeared  suddenly  in  Cairo  ; slew  four  beys  who 
were  his  enemies  ; banished  four  others  ; and  became  from 
that  moment  the  chief  of  the  prevailing  party.  He  no 
longer  thought  it  necessary  to  conceal  his  ulterior  views  ; 
but  expelling  the  pasha,  and  refusing  the  tribute  annually 
remitted  to  Constantinople,  he  assumed  the  supreme  power, 
and  even  proceeded  so  far  as  to  coin  money  in  his  own 
name. 

The  Porte  did  not  behold  without  indignation  such  an 
attack  upon  its  authority;  but  being  occupied  with  the 
affairs  of  Poland  and  the  pretensions  of  Russia,  could  not 
bestow  a sufficient  degree  of  attention  on  the  revolted 
province.  The  usual  methods  of  poison  and  the  bowstring 
were  repeatedly  attempted  ; but  Ali,  whose  vigilance  wras 
ever  awake,  turned  these  deadly  instruments  against  the 
lives  of  those  who  bore  them.  To  consolidate  his  power, 
he  equipped  a fleet  in  the  Red  Sea,  and  took  possession  of 
Mecca  and  of  Djidda ; at  the  latter  of  which  places  he 


220 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


meant  to  establish  the  emporium  of  Indian  commerce,  and 
thereby  to  supersede  the  tedious  voyage  by  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  His  chief  undertaking,  however,  was  directed 
against  the  Turkish  arms  in  Syria.  Sheik  Daher,  already 
in  rebellion,  was  a powerful  and  faithful  ally ; while  the 
extortions  of  the  pasha  of  Damascus,  by  driving  the  people 
to  revolt,  afforded  the  most  favourable  opportunity  for 
invading  his  government. 

In  the  year  1771  a force,  amounting  to  about  sixty  thou- 
sand men,  crossed  the  frontier  under  the  command  of 
Mohammed  Bey,  the  friend  of  Ali.  Daher  sent  four  or 
five  thousand  irregular  cavalry  to  strengthen  the  expedition, 
led  by  his  son,  a youth  of  great  military  promise.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  pashas  of  Sidon,  Tripoli,  and  Aleppo  mus- 
tered their  several  contingents,  and  advanced  to  join  Osman 
the  governor  of  Damascus,  whose  territory  was  menaced 
with  invasion.  On  the  6th  of  June  an  action  took  place, 
when  the  Mamlouks  and  their  allies  rushed  with  so  much 
fury  on  the  Turks,  that  the  latter,  terrified  at  the  carnage, 
had  immediate  recourse  to  flight.  The  troops  of  Ali  in- 
stantly became  masters  of  the  whole  country,  and  took  pos- 
session of  the  capital  without  opposition,  there  being  neither 
soldiers  nor  walls  to  defend  it.  The  castle  alone  made  a 
show  of  resistance  ; for  the  garrison,  being  already  con- 
quered by  their  fears,  hastened  to  capitulate  in  order  to 
prevent  the  horrors  of  an  assault. 

But  the  morning  on  which  the  place  was  to  be  surrendered 
witnessed  an  extraordinary  scene.  At  dawn  of  day  the 
Egyptian  army  was  beheld  in  full  retreat  towards  the  Nile. 
In  vain  did  Daher  fly  to  demand  the  cause  of  so  strange  a mea- 
sure ; Mohammed  made  no  other  answer  to  the  anxious  inter- 
rogatories of  the  Syrian  rebel  than  that  it  was  his  pleasure 
to  retire,  and  that  no  one  was  entitled  to  question  the  pru- 
dence of  his  conduct.  Nor  was  it-  merely  a retreat  con- 
ducted on  military  principles ; it  was  a positive  flight,  the 
Mamlouks  rushing  from  before  the  walls  as  if  hotly  pursued 
by  a victorious  enemy,  while  the  road  from  Damascus  to 
Cairo  was  covered  with  men  on  foot,  and  with  the  stores 
and  baggage  which  they  had  abandoned.  This  singular 
occurrence  was  attributed  at  the  time  to  a pretended  report 
of  the  death  of  Ali  Bey ; but  the  real  cause,  soon  afterward 
discovered,  was  no  other  than  a conference  with  Osman, 


MODERN  EGYPT. 


221 


held  in  the  tent  of  the  Egyptian  commander,  when  the 
pasha  gained  him  and  the  beys  under  his  orders  to  the 
interests  of  the  Sublime  Porte.  Convinced  by  the  argu- 
ments addressed  to  their  avarice  not  less  than  to  their  fears, 
they  swore  by  the  sabre  and  the  Koran  to  return  home  with- 
out delay ; and  so  suddenly  did  they  execute  their  determi- 
nation that  the  news  of  their  coming  preceded  their  actual 
arrival  at  Cairo  only  by  six  hours.  Ali  would  at  once  have 
punished  this  treason  by  the  death  of  his  general ; but  find- 
ing him  supported  by  many  powerful  individuals  in  the 
army,  he  suppressed  his  rage,  thinking  it  more  politic  to 
reserve  the  moment  of  revenge  till  he  could  gratify  it  without 
danger. 

To  effect  the  ruin  of  Mohammed,  whose  conduct  even 
after  the  affair  of  Damascus  continued  to  excite  suspicion, 
he  gave  orders,  on  one  occasion,  that  no  Mamlouk  should 
be  suffered  to  pass  the  gates  of  Cairo  in  the  evening  or  at 
night ; and,  at  the  same  moment,  commanded  his  rival  into 
exile.  He  had  hoped,  it  was  supposed,  that  the  object  of 
his  displeasure,  as  he  must  necessarily  leave  the  city  before 
morning,  would  be  detained  by  the  guards  for  attempting 
to  violate  the  regulation  just  mentioned,  and  be  thereby 
placed  entirely  in  his  power.  But  the  soldiers,  imagining 
that  their  general  was  charged  with  private  instructions 
from  Ali,  allowed  him  to  pass  without  interruption,  although 
accompanied  with  a formidable  retinue  ; nor  was  the  mis- 
take discovered  until  it  was  too  late  to  pursue  him.  Mo- 
hammed retired  into  the  Said,  where  he  drew  around  him 
all  the  discontented  Mamlouks,  and  waited  with  impatience 
an  opportunity  for  avenging  their  common  cause. 

In  a little  time  the  force  of  this  disaffected  chief  was  so  greatly 
augmented  that  he  thought  himself  sufficiently  strong  to  make 
an  attempt  upon  Cairo.  A battle  ensued  in  a plain  adjoin- 
ing to  the  city,  which  terminated  so  decidedly  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  insurgents,  that  Ali  found  some  difficulty  to  escape 
at  the  head  of  eight  hundred  Mamlouks,  who  accompanied 
his  flight  into  Syria.  There  he  joined  his  old  ally  Daher, 
who  still  held  out  against  the  government  of  Constantinople ; 
and,  having  strengthened  the  camp  with  so  seasonable  a 
reinforcement  of  well-disciplined  cavalry,  he  took  share  in 
an  expedition  at  that  instant  meditated  by  the  revolted 
Tasha,  the  object  of  which  was  to  raise  the  siege  of  Sidon 
T 2 


222 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


The  Turks,  unwilling  to  he  attacked  in  their  trenches,  drew 
out  their  tumultuary  bands  to  a little  distance  from  the 
town,  and  prepared  for  a general  action.  Fortune  once 
more  smiled  on  Ali  and  his  confederates,  who  soon  saw  the 
army  of  the  enemy,  three  times  more  numerous  than  their 
own,  entirely  defeated,  and  scattered  over  the  face  of  t^he 
country. 

Flushed  with  this  success,  the  exiled  ruler  longed  to 
return  to  his  capital,  where,  as  he  was  insidiously  informed 
by  the  agents  of  Mohammed,  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
were  anxious  to  behold  him  restored  to  his  former  power. 
He  was  also  deceived  by  his  superstition,  which  taught  him 
to  believe  that  the  hour  of  his  ascendant  was  come,  and  that 
the  stars  pointed  out  the  path  to  a renewed  and  permanent 
glory.  Had  he  listened  to  the  voice  of  prudence,  he  would 
have  waited  for  the  assistance  promised  by  the  Russians, 
who  did  not  disdain  to  consider  him  a useful  ally  in  their 
war  with  the  Porte, — and  for  the  troops  detached  by  Daher, 
to*  secure  a victorious  return,  whatever  might  be  the  inten- 
tions or  military  resources  of  the  hostile  beys.  But  yielding 
to  an  inconsiderate  impatience,  with  the  remains  of  his 
Mamlouks  and  fifteen  hundred  Sifadians  he  entered  the 
desert,  where  he  was  met  by  Mourad  at  the  head  of  a 
superior  force  ; wounded  by  the  hand  of  this  young  officer ; 
taken  prisoner ; and  forthwith  conducted  into  the  presence 
of  Mohammed.  On  the  third  day  after  this  event,  his  death 
was  announced  to  the  soldiers,  who  were  desired  to  ascribe 
it  to  the  severe  hurts  which  he  had  received  in  the  fight ; 
but  who,  notwithstanding,  were  generally  disposed  to  trace 
it  to  the  operation  of  poison,  or  to  the  less  tedious  application 
of  the  dagger. 

Thus  terminated  the  career  of  this  celebrated  person, 
who  for  some  time  engaged  the  attention  of  Europe,  and 
afforded  to  many  politicians  the  hopes  of  a beneficial  revo- 
lution. That  he  was  an  extraordinary  character  cannot  be 
denied  ; but  it  is  exaggeration  to  place  him  in  the  class  of 
great  men.  The  accounts  given  of  him  by  those  who  knew 
him  best  prove,  that  though  he  possessed  the  seeds  of  great 
qualities,  the  want  of  culture  prevented  them  from  coming 
to  maturity.  But  in  Ali  Bey  we  must  admire  one  property 
which  distinguished  him  from  the  multitude  of  tyrants  who 
have  governed  Egypt,  and  which  is  never  the  portion  of 


MODERN  EGYPT. 


223 


vulgar  minds  ; he  was  actuated  by  the  desire  of  attaining 
glory,  although  a vicious  education  prevented  him  from  dis- 
covering its  true  elements  as  well  as  the  path  which  leads 
to  it.  To  be  a great  statesman  as  well  as  a warrior  he 
wanted  nothing  but  the  lessons  of  civilized  life,  or  the  aid 
of  enlightened  counsellors ; and  of  those  who  are  born  to 
command,  how  few  are  there  who  merit  even  this  restricted 
eulogium  !* 

The  death  of  Ali  Bey  did  not  produce  any  change  favour- 
able to  Egypt ; on  the  contrary,  Mohammed,  into  whose 
hands  the  supreme  power  fell  undivided,  displayed,  during 
the  two  years  of  his  government,  no  qualities  higher  than 
the  ferocity  of  a robber  and  the  baseness  of  a traitor.  He 
began,  indeed,  by  renewing  the  customary  tribute  to  the 
sultan,  and  even  paid  the  arrears  due  by  his  predecessor ; 
but  his  conduct  soon  proved,  that  instead  of  acting  on  the 
principles  of  an  enlightened  patriotism,  he  intended  no 
more  than  to  purchase  the  means  of  gratifying  political  re- 
venge, and  of  depressing  a formidable  neighbour.  He 
sought  permission  to  wage  war  with  Daher,  and  to  reduce 
the  whole  of  Syria  to  the  obedience  of  the  Porte ; thereby 
covering  the  deep  feeling  of  private  resentment  under  the 
cloak  of  public  duty. 

After  due  preparation,  he  undertook  the  siege  of  Jaffa, 
which,  owing  to  the  ignorance  of  the  assailants  rather  than 
the  courage  of  the  garrison,  was  protracted  to  the  end  of 
six  weeks.  At  length  conditions  were  agreed  on,  and  the 
treaty  might  be  considered  as  concluded,  when,  in  the  midst 
of  the  security  occasioned  by  that  belief,  the  Mamlouks 
rushed  into  the  town,  and  subjected  it  to  all  the  horrors  of 
an  assault,  putting  women  and  children,  old  and  young,  to 
death ; while  Mohammed,  equally  mean  and  barbarous, 
caused  a pyramid  formed  of  the  heads  of  these  unfortunate 
sufferers  to  be  raised  as  a monument  of  his  victory.  He 
advanced  next  to  Acre,  where  the  Shiek  Daher  had  estab- 
lished his  government,  and  demanded  that  all  the  riches 
accumulated  within  the  city  should  be  delivered  up  to  him, 
under  the  pain  of  a universal  massacre  of  the  inhabitants, 
not  excepting  the  European  merchants.  But  before  the 
day  arrived  on  which  he  intended  to  realize  his  savage 

* Volney’s  Travels  through  Egypt  and  Syria,  vol.  i.  p.  139 : Edinburgh 
Encyclopaedia,  article  Egypt. 


224 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


threatening,  he  was  carried  off  by  a malignant  fever  in  the 
very  prime  of  life. 

This  event  took  place  in  the  summer  of  1776  ; upon 
which  the  army,  as  on  a former  occasion,  dispersed  in  the 
greatest  disorder,  and  accomplished  a tumultuous  march 
into  Egypt.  Mohammed  had  left  at  Cairo  one  of  his  freed- 
men,  Ibrahim  Bey,  as  governor  of  the  city,  taking  with  him 
into  Syria  the  more  warlike  Mourad,  to  whom  he  confided 
the  management  of  the  campaign.  These  two  chiefs  were 
now  prepared  to  dispute  the  succession,  and  every  appear- 
ance at  first  threatened  open  hostilities  ; but  when  they  had 
time  to  consider  the  power  and  resources  of  each  other,  they 
determined  to  avoid  the  issue  of  a combat,  and  to  share  the 
authority  which  neither  was  content  to  relinquish. 

Their  joint  administration,  however,  was  soon  disturbed 
by  the  jealousies  of  the  other  beys,  who  thought  themselves 
unjustly  deprived  of  the  influence  which  belonged  to  their 
rank, — a feeling  which  made  the  deepest  impression  on 
certain  individuals  who  had  belonged  to  the  house  of  Ali, 
the  great  patron  of  their  order.  Two  of  that  number, 
Hassan  and  Ishmael,  collected  their  adherents  and  took  the 
field.  Mourad  pursued  them  into  the  Said,  where  the 
greater  part  either  dispersed  or  capitulated  without  coming 
to  action. 

Dissension  at  length  divided  the  interests  of  the  sovereign 
colleagues,  and  even  drove  them  to  arms.  Each  in  his  turn 
fled  from  Cairo,  and  formed  an  encampment  in  Upper 
Egypt ; but  no  sooner  did  their  troops  appear  in  sight  of 
one  another  than  the  chiefs  induced  them  to  settle  their 
differences  on  the  basis  of  a new  treaty.  Matters  continued 
in  this  precarious  situation  till  1786,  when,  peace  being 
established  between  the  Russians  and  the  Turks,  the  sultan 
resolved  to  reduce  Egypt  once  more  to  a state  of  obedience. 
With  this  view  he  despatched  the  celebrated  Hassan  Pasha 
at  the  head  of  25,000  men,  who,  landing  at  Alexandria  in 
the  month  of  July,  made  instant  preparations  for  advancing 
towards  the  capital.  Mourad  and  his  Mamlouks  met  him 
at  Mentorbes,  where  a desperate  battle  ensued.  The  ground 
being  still  very  soft  from  the  effects  of  the  inundation,  the 
Turkish  infantry  gained  a decided  advantage  over  horsemen 
whose  movements  were  constantly  impeded,  and  who,  sink- 
ing in  the  mud,  were  equally  incapable  of  attack  or  defence. 


MODERN  EGYPT. 


225 


Cairo  opened  its  gates  to  Hassan,  who,  after  appointing  a 
governor,  continued  his  march  in  pursuit  of  the  rebellious 
beys  into  Upper  Egypt.  The  difficulties  of  this  undertak- 
ing, however,  induced  him  in  the  course  of  the  following 
year  to  accede  to  a treaty,  by  which  they  were  left  in  full 
possession  of  the  country  from  Barbieh  to  the  frontiers  of 
Nubia,  on  condition  of  relinquishing  all  claims  to  the  ter- 
ritory below  the  limits  now  specified. 

The  wisdom  and  moderation  of  the  Turkish  pasha  pro- 
cured the  inestimable  blessing  of  a settled  government  to 
the  inhabitants  of  Lower  Egypt.  He  lightened  their  bur- 
dens, redressed  their  numerous  grievances,  and  fortified  the 
city  so  as  to  protect  it  from  a sudden  inroad  on  the  part  of 
the  disaffected  beys.  But  in  1790  the  plague  appeared  in 
its  most  virulent  form,  and  after  committing  frightful  de- 
vastation among  the  lower  classes,  put  an  end  to  the  life 
of  Ishmael.  Only  a short  interval  elapsed,  during  which 
an  attempt  was  made  to  perpetuate  the  authority  of  the 
Porte,  when  Mourad  and  Ibrahim  returned  from  their  exile, 
and  assumed  once  more  the  sovereign  power  in  defiance  of 
the  sultan  and  his  divan. 

But  the  domestic  struggles  of  party  were  now  about  to  be 
superseded  by  an  event  which  threatened  the  existence  of 
Egypt  as  a province  of  the  Turkish  empire.  In  1798  a 
French  army  under  General  Buonaparte  effected  a landing 
near  Alexandria,  with  the  avowed  object  of  restoring  the 
legitimate  influence  of  the  grand  signior,  but  with  the  real 
intention  of  adding  that  important  country  to  the  dominions 
of  the  new  republic.  The  Mamlouks  resolved  to  dispute 
his  passage  towards  the  capital,  and  accordingly  awaited 
his  approach  at  Imbaba,  a village  about  seven  miles  distant 
from  the  Great  Pyramids.  As  might  have  been  expected, 
the  discipline  of  the  French  triumphed  over  the  wild  courage 
of  their  opponents,  gained  a complete  victory,  and  opened 
the  way  for  the  possession  of  Grand  Cairo.  Ibrahim  fled 
into  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Delta,  while  Mourad  with  the 
remnant  of  his  brave  horsemen  retreated  into  the  desert 
beyond  Sakhara. 

The  possession  of  Egypt  had  long  been  viewed  by  the 
politicians  of  France  as  an  object  of  great  importance.  It 
is  therefore  an  error  to  suppose  that  the  scheme  of  conquer- 
ing that  country  originated  with  Napoleon  Buonaparte ; for 


220 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


he,  in  adopting  this  bold  measure,  did  no  more  than  follow 
up  the  ideas  of  several  writers  who  had  great  influence  on 
the  public  mind  of  Europe.  Sanuto  the  Venetian,  for  ex- 
ample, mentions  the  subjugation  of  Egypt  by  some  nation 
whose  territory  bordered  on  the  Mediterranean,  as  the  most 
effectual  blow  that  could  be  struck  against  the  power  of  the 
Crescent,  as  well  as  the  most  likely  means  for  recovering 
the  East  India  trade.  Count  Daru,  who  in  his  history  of 
Venice  repeats  the  arguments  of  Sanuto,  reminds  his  readers 
that  the  communication  between  India  and  the  southern 
parts  of  Europe,  by  the  channel  of  the  Red  Sea,  was  the 
shortest,  the  surest,  and  the  most  economical ; that  it  would 
not  be  difficult  to  establish  a communication  between  the 
Red  Sea  and  the  Nile;  that,  independently  of  the  com- 
merce of  India,  there  was  on  the  eastern  coast  of  that  sea 
a country  abounding  in  aromatics  and  perfumes  ; that  Africa 
itself,  by  its  gold  and  ivory,  offered  rich  materials  for  trade; 
and,  in  short,  that  the  possession  of  Egypt  by  one  of  the 
maritime  powers  of  the  Mediterranean  was  preferable  to 
the  possession  of  all  the  provinces  of  Hindostan. 

Leibnitz,  too,  addressed  to  Louis  the  Fourteenth  a memo- 
rial on  the  same  subject,  advising  that  monarch  to  lay  hold 
of  Egypt  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  the  maritime  and 
commercial  ascendency  of  the  Dutch,  which  he  alleges  de- 
pended mainly  on  the  success  of  their  Indian  trade.  Hence 
it  is  manifest  that  Buonaparte  only  revived  an  old  theory, 
and  attempted  to  launch  against  Britain  the  weapon  which 
the  German  philosopher  had  forged  for  the  destruction  of 
the  merchants  and  shipmasters  of  Holland.* 

The  government  of  the  sultan,  who  could  not  mistake  the 
motives  of  Buonaparte,  declared  war  in  the  following  year 
against  the  French  republic.  Throwing  off  the  mask,  po- 
litical and  religious,  which  did  not  deceive  even  the  Arabs 
and  Fellahs  of  Egypt,  the  invader  led  his  army  into  Syria, 
and  laid  siege  to  the  principal  towns  on  the  coast.  El  Arish 
and  Jaffa  were  quickly  reduced  ; upon  which  he  opened  his 

* Histoire  de  Venice,  tom.  iii.  p.  75,  76 ; Webster’s  Travels  through 
the  Crimea,  Turkey,  and  Egypt.  The  Venetians  solicited  the  authority 
of  the  pope  to  trade  with  infidels  ; but  in  the  mean  time,  says  the  histo- 
rian, they  made  no  scruple  to  conform  to  the  errors  of  the  Mussulmans, 
by  enacting  treaties  “in  the  name  of  the  Lord  and  of  Mahomet” — au 
riom  du  Seigneur  et  de  Mahomet. 


MODERN  EGYPT. 


227 


trenches  before  Acre.  The  result  of  this  memorable  enter- 
prise is  too  well  known  to  require  any  details.  Buonaparte, 
after  sacrificing  his  heavy  artillery,  commenced  a retreat 
towards  Egypt  under  the  most  unfavourable  circumstances; 
his  track  through  the  desert  being  marked  by  the  dead  bodies 
of  French  soldiers  who  had  sunk  under  fatigue,  or  were 
sabred  by  the  light  cavalry  of  the  enemy. 

Dessaix,  who  had  been  left  to  prosecute  the  war  against 
the  Mamlouks,  found  himself  unable  to  bring  them  to  a 
general  action.  Mourad  retired  before  him  as  far  as  Syene, 
occupying  such  positions  as  rendered  an  attack  impossible  ; 
and  no  sooner  did  the  French  turn  their  backs,  than  he  as- 
sailed their  rear  or  cut  oflf  their  supplies.  Meanwhile  a 
Turkish  fleet  appeared  on  the  coast  with  eight  thousand 
men  on  board.  Hardly  had  they  landed  when  they  were 
met  by  Buonaparte,  who,  after  an  obstinate  and  sanguinary 
conflict,  overwhelmed  them  with  a complete  destruction  ; the 
most  of  those  who  escaped  his  bayonets  being  drowned  in 
attempting  to  regain  their  ships. 

Although  we  profess  not  to  be  the  historian  of  the  mili- 
tary proceedings  which  determined  the  fate  of  Egypt  at  the 
beginning  of  this  century,  we  cannot  pass  without  remark 
the  exaggeration  of  Denon,  who  says  that  at  Aboukir  the 
French  destroyed  twenty  thousand  Turks,  six  thousand 
being  killed,  two  thousand  taken,  and  the  remainder  driven 
into  the  sea.  Such  statements  were  written  to  gratify  the 
pride  or  amuse  the  anxiety  of  the  Parisians,  who  could  not 
conceal  from  themselves  that  their  country  had  sacrificed  a 
fleet  and  an  army  to  the  romantic  ambition  of  a popular 
general ; and  it  is  no  longer  denied  by  the  biographers  of 
Buonaparte,  that  he  was  in  the  practice  of  dictating  false- 
hoods, to  be  given  to  the  world  in  the  form  of  public  des- 
patches, in  order  to  withdraw  attention  from  the  amount 
of  his  disasters. 

The  victory  of  Nelson,  and  the  repulses  sustained  in 
Syria,  indicated  to  this  chief  that  the  star  of  his  fortune  was 
not  to  reach  its  ascendant  in  Egypt.  Intrusting  the  com- 
mand to  Kleber,  he  departed  in  a secret  manner  from  head- 
quarters, and  sailed  for  France,  where  he  hastened  to  forget 
the  companions  of  his  toil  in  the  deep  game  of  politics  which 
soon  afterward  placed  him  on  a throne.  Buonaparte  is 
understood  to  have  instructed  his  successor  to  enter  into 


228 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


negotiation  with  the  government  of  the  Porte,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  evacuating  the  country,  on  condition  that  certain 
commercial  advantages  should  be  conceded  to  the  French 
republic.  Failing  in  this,  it  is  related  that  Kleber  consented 
to  withdraw  his  army  on  the  simple  terms  of  being  allowed 
to  retain  private  property,  and  of  having  the  safety  of  his 
men  guarantied  against  the  Mamlouks  on  shore  and  the 
British  at  sea.  But  the  treaty  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
signed ; each  party  imagining  that  their  circumstances 
might  be  improved  by  another  appeal  to  arms.  The  French 
general,  indeed,  was  soon  after  assassinated  at  Cairo ; but 
Menou,  who  succeeded  to  the  chief  authority,  being  encou- 
raged by  the  expectation  of  receiving  fresh  supplies  from 
Europe,  resolved  to  keep  possession  of  the  country  at  all 
hazards,  and  to  defend  his  positions  against  the  combined 
forces  of  the  Turks  and  English.* 

The  debarkation  of  the  army  under  Sir  Ralph  Abercrom- 
bie, the  gallant  actions  which  succeeded,  and  the  defeat  of 
the  French  near  Alexandria,  on  the  21st  March,  1800,  are 
matters  of  general  history  familiarly  known  to  every  reader. 
Egypt  at  this  moment  became  the  scene  of  European  wars  ; 
the  policy  of  two  great  nations  was  brought  into  collision 
on  the  banks  of  the  Nile  ; and  the  fate  of  India,  or  at  least 
the  temporary  security  of  the  British  possessions  in  that  vast 
country,  appeared  to  depend  on  the  success  or  failure  of  this 
unwonted  expedition  into  an  African  province.  Each  party 

* Sir  Robert  Wilson  (History  of  Expedition,  p.  65,  quarto  edition) 
assigns  a reason  for  the  renewal  of  the  war  highly  creditable  to  the  British 
character.  Admiral  Keith  reftised  to  give  his  consent  to  the  conditions 
agreed  upon  at  El  Arish,  communicating  to  the  Turks  his  conviction 
of  the  greater  expediency  of  driving  the  French  out  of  the  country  alto- 
gether. Kleber  was  at  Cairo,  and  making  preparations  to  evacuate  the 
capital,  when  a notice  arrived  from  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  that  hostilities 
were  to  be  continued,  and  that  he  was  not  expected  to  fulfil  the  terms  of 
a convention  which  was  not  to  be  observed  by  the  other  party.  The 
Turks,  it  is  said,  meant  to  take  advantage  of  Kleber’s  ignorance,  and  to 
attack  him  while  reposing  on  bis  arms.  It  is  added,  that  they  never  for- 
gave Sir  Sidney  for  his  generous  honesty,  considering  him  as  little  better 
than  a traitor  to  their  cause. 

Others  insinuate  that  Kleber  had  no  intention  of  acceding  to  the  treaty, 
and  that  he  negotiated  with  the  allies  only  to  gain  time  until  the  arrival 
of  reinforcements  from  Europe  should  enable  him  to  act  with  greater 
certainty  of  success.  See  Wilson ; Dr.  Clarke,  vol.  iii. ; Life  of  Buona- 
parte in  Family  Library ; Bourrienne’s  Memoirs ; and  the  Modem  Trav- 
eller 


MODERN  EGYPT. 


229 


professed  to  support  the  legitimate  power  of  the  grand 
signior ; but  even  the  simplest  of  the  Arab  tribes  could  not 
fail  to  perceive  that  their  land  was  desolated  by  the  ambition 
of  the  Franks,  who,  they  suspected,  were  accustomed  to 
avow  one  motive  and  to  act  upon  another. 

The  siege  of  Alexandria  was  rendered  remarkable  by  an 
expedient  which  necessity  appeared  to  sanction,  though 
doubts  have  since  been  entertained  both  of  its  wisdom  and 
humanity.  It  is  worthy  of  notice,  at  the  same  time,  that  it 
was  suggested  by  the  French  ; for  in  the  pocket  of  General 
Roiz,  who  was  killed  in  the  action  of  the  21st,  there  was 
found  a letter  written  by  Menou,  expressing  an  apprehen- 
sion that  the  British  wduld  cut  the  embankment  which  forms 
the  canal  of  Alexandria,  and  thereby  admit  the  waters  of 
the  sea  into  Lake  Mareotis.  “ From  that  moment,”  says 
Sir  Robert  Wilson,  “ it  had  become  the  favourite  object  of 
the  army  ; as,  by  securing  the  left  and  part  of  its  front,  the 
duty  would  be  diminished,  the  French  cut  off  from  the  inte- 
rior, and  a new  scene  of  operations  opened.”  But  there 
were  very  serious  objections  to  the  measure.  The  mischief 
it  might  do  was  incalculable.  The  Arabs  could  give  no 
information  where  such  a sea  would  be  checked  : the  ruin 
of  Alexandria  might  probably  be  the  consequence  ; and, 
while  it  covered  the  British  left,  it  would  also  secure  the 
front  of  the  French  position,  except  from  a new  landing. 
But  the  urgency  of  the  present  service,  says  the  historian,  at 
length  superseded  all  remoter  considerations.  General  Hut- 
chinson reluctantly  consented,  and  the  army  was  in  rap- 
tures. Never  did  a working  party  labour  with  more  zeal ; 
every  man  would  have  volunteered  with  cheerfulness  to 
assist.  Four  cuts  were  made  of  six  yards  in  breadth,  and 
about  ten  distant  from  each  other  ; but  only  two  could  be 
opened  the  first  night.  At  seven  o’clock  the  last  fascine 
was  removed,  and  the  joy  was  universal.  The  water 
rushed  in  with  a fall  of  six  feet ; and  the  pride  and  peculiar 
care  of  Egypt,  the  consolidation  of  ages,  was  in  a few  hours 
destroyed  by  the  devastating  hand  of  man.  Two  more  cuts 
were  finished  next  day,  and  three  more  marked  out ; but 
the  force  of  the  water  was  such  as  soon  to  break  one  into 
the  other ; and  now  an  immense  body  of  water  rushed  in, 
which  continued  flowing  for  a month  with  considerable 
violence. 


U 


230 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


After  a variety  of  skirmishes,  which  usually  terminated 
to  the  advantage  of  the  British  and  their  allies,  General 
Hutchinson  resolved  to  lay  siege  to  Cairo,  where  the  main 
strength  of  the  French  army  was  now  assembled.  Beliard, 
who  commanded  in  that  city,  proposed  terms  of  capitula- 
tion ; being  at  length  perfectly  satisfied,  that  without  rein- 
forcements from  Europe  the  war  could  not  be  carried  on 
with  any  rational  prospect  of  success.  On  the  27th  June 
articles  were  signed,  by  which  the  garrison  consented  to 
evacuate  the  capital  on  condition  of  being  sent  to  France. 

Meantime  the  blockade  of  Alexandria  was  prosecuted 
with  vigour  under  the  direction  of  General  Coote;  Menou 
having  expressed  his  determinatiorf  to  bury  himself  in  its 
ruins  rather  than  pull  down  the  flag  of  the  victorious  repub- 
lic. But  no  sooner  had  a regular  bombardment  commenced 
from  the  ships  in  the  harbour  and  the  batteries  on  land, 
than  his  resolution  failed,  and  he  expressed  his  readiness  to 
listen  to  terms.  On  the  2d  of  September  the  garrison  laid 
down  their  arms,  on  the  usual  condition  of  being  sent  to 
their  own  country  without  any  impeachment  on  their  honour 
as  soldiers  ; and  thus  Egypt,  after  having  been  more  than 
two  years  the  theatre  of  a destructive  war,  found  itself  once 
more  under  the  government  of  the  Turks,  and  acknow- 
ledging the  authority  of  the  Sublime  Porte. 

The  British  general  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost  to 
procure  favourable  terms  in  behalf  of  the  Mamlouk  beys, 
who,  it  was  well  known,  had  resolutely  opposed  the  French, 
and  suffered  no  small  loss  both  in  men  and  property,  in  the 
earlier  period  of  the  invasion.  Mourad  had  already  fallen 
a victim  to  the  plague,  and  Ibrahim,  now  well  advanced  in 
age,  was  at  the  head  of  their  affairs,  assisted  by  Osman 
Tambourji,  an  active  and  very  gallant  officer.  On  the  sur- 
render of  Cairo,  General  Hutchinson  insisted  that  the  Mam- 
louks  should  have  restored  to  them  all  their  rights  and  dig- 
nities, on  condition  of  paying  their  annual  tribute  to  the 
sultan,  and  of  permitting  the  pasha  to  exercise  the  authority 
belonging  to  a viceroy  at  the  head  of  a competent  body  of 
troops. 

The  grand  vizier,  who  was  still  in  Egypt,  ostensibly  con- 
curred in  this  arrangement,  and  reinstated  Ibrahim  in  his 
former  office  of  Sheik  el  Belled,  or  governor  of  Cairo  ; but  it 
was,  nevertheless,  the  intention  of  the  court  to  depress  the 


MODERN  EGYPT. 


231 


beys  to  such  a degree  that  they  should  no  longer  have  it  in 
their  power  to  disturb  the  tranquillity  of  the  province. 
With  this  view  the  capitan  pasha  invited  their  leader  with 
his  principal  officers  to  his  camp  at  Aboukir.  These  rough 
soldiers,  dreading  no  treachery,  repaired  into  the  admiral’s 
presence,  and  were  received  with  every  demonstration  of 
esteem.  Pleasure  and  amusements  were  freely  lavished  on 
them  ; but  as  this  complaisance  had  no  apparent  object, 
the  guests  became  tired  of  it,  expressed  their  suspicions  to 
the  British  general,  and  even  threatened  to  leave  the  camp 
without  permission.  That  officer  assured  them  of  the 
friendly  intentions  of  the  pasha  and  of  their  own  safety  ; 
not  suspecting  the  frightful  atrocity  which  the  barbarian 
chief  was  actually  meditating. 

A short  time  afterward,  when  Lord  Hutchinson  was  about 
to  leave  the  country,  Hassan  again  invited  the  beys  to  a 
sumptuous  entertainment ; when,  at  his  importunate  re- 
quest, they  consented  to  go  on  board  some  pleasure-boats 
which  he  had  provided  for  the  purpose.  When  they  had 
proceeded  to  a little  distance  at  sea,  they  were  followed  by 
a fast-sailing  skiff,  sent,  as  it  were,  with  intelligence  to  the 
pasha ; which  he  no  sooner  perceived  than  he  mentioned 
the  necessity  of  conversing  with  the  messenger,  apprehend- 
ing that  he  might  be  the  bearer  of  important  despatches  from 
Constantinople.  The  cutter  came  alongside,  and  what 
appeared  to  be  ample  despatches  were  handed  to  the  Turk, 
who,  on  pretence  of  reading  them  more  at  his  leisure, 
stepped  into  the  small  vessel,  which  immediately  fell  back. 
The  Mamlouks,  still  unsuspecting  the  snare  which  was  laid 
for  them,  proceeded  on  their  course  ; but  no  sooner  did  they 
enter  Aboukir  Bay  than  they  saw  some  large  ships,  filled 
with  soldiers,  and  ready  for  action.  They  now  perceived 
their  danger,  and  their  worst  fears  were  about  to  be  realized  ; 
for  discharges  of  musketry  and  artillery  hurled  destruction 
among  the  boats,  and  killed  nearly  all  who  were  on  board. 
Those  who  escaped  death  were  taken  prisoners,  and  forced 
to  swear  on  the  Koran  that  they  would  not  reclaim  the  pro- 
tection of  the  English.  Our  countrymen,  however,  indig- 
nant at  this  abominable  instance  of  Mussulman  treachery, 
and  sensible  that  their  own  faith  had  been  pledged  for  the 
safety  of  the  beys,  addressed  to  the  pasha  a very  severe 
remonstrance : they  insisted  that  the  prisoners  should  be 


232 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


liberated,  and  that  the  bodies  of  the  murdered  chiefs  should 
be  buried  with  military  honours. 

On  the  departure  of  Hassan,  Mohammed  Kusrouf,  his 
favourite  slave,  was  appointed  pasha  of  Grand  Cairo.  A 
Georgian  by  birth,  this  minion  of  fortune  showed  himself 
equally  weak  and  tyrannical,  and  seemed  to  confine  all  the 
energies  of  his  government  to  the  extermination  of  the  hated 
Mamlouks.  He  invited  them  to  fix  their  residence  in  the 
capital ; and  upon  meeting  a direct  refusal,  he  sent  a strong 
force  against  them  into  Upper  Egypt,  under  the  command 
of  Taher,  and  the  celebrated  Mohammed  Ali,  then  begin- 
ning to  rise  into  power.  All  attempts  at  negotiation  having 
failed,  Kusrouf  sent  a larger  army,  which  he  intrusted  to 
Yousef  Bey,  with  orders  to  prosecute  the  war  with  the 
utmost  vigour.  A battle  ensued  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Damanhour,  in  which  the  Turks  were  miserably  defeated, 
with  the  loss  of  five  thousand  men  killed  and  wounded. 
The  Mamlouks,  being  very  little  weakened,  might  have 
pushed  their  success  to  the  gates  of  Cairo  ; but,  from  igno- 
rance and  dissension,  they  threw  away  the  fruits  of  their 
victory,  and  allowed  the  viceroy  time  to  rally  the  fugitives, 
and  place  the  city  in  a posture  of  defence. 

Y ousef  attributed  his  want  of  success  to  the  disaffection 
or  the  cowardice  of  Mohammed  Ali,  who  appears  to  have 
been  second  in  command, — a charge  which  was  eagerly 
listened  to  by  the  pasha,  who  had  already  seen  reason  to 
apprehend  the  ambitious  projects  of  this  remarkable  person, 
whose  character  has  since  made  so  deep  an  impression  on 
the  history  of  modem  Egypt.  The  attempt  which  was 
made  to  bring  him  to  trial  occasioned  a revolution  in  the 
government,  the  effects  of  which  have  been  perpetuated  to 
the  present  day ; but  in  order  that  the  connexion  of  events 
may  be  more  clearly  traced,  we  must  indulge  in  a brief 
retrospect  of  his  earlier  progress  towards  the  distinction 
which  he  still  occupies. 

The  present  viceroy  of  Egypt  is  a native  of  Cavalla,  a 
small  town  in  Roumelia,  a district  of  Albania.  Losing  his 
father  in  early  life,  he  was  protected  by  the  governor  of  the 
place,  who  bestowed  upon  him  that  species  of  training  which 
qualifies  a man  to  rise  under  a despotic  government,  where 
vigilance,  intrepidity,  and  a ready  use  of  arms  are  held  the 
most  valuable  accomplishments.  His  activity  recommended 


MODERN  EGYPT. 


233 


him  to  an  appointment  as  a subordinate  collector  of  taxes ; 
and  in  the  performance  of  his  duty  it  was  observed  that  he 
set  a higher  value  on  the  money  which  he  was  ordered  to 
exact,  than  on  the  blood  or  even  the  lives  of  the  unhappy 
peasantry  over  whom  his  jurisdiction  extended.  On  one 
occasion  the  inhabitants  of  a village  refused  payment, 
resisted,  threatened,  and  rose  in  rebellion.  The  governor 
was  alarmed  at  this  unusual  firmness,  and  applied  to  Mo- 
hammed. The  young  functionary  undertook  to  reduce 
them  to  obedience  ; and  for  this  purpose  he  proceeded  to  the 
refractory  hamlet  at  the  head  of  a few  men  hastily  equipped, 
announcing  that  he  was  charged  with  a secret  mission.  He 
entered  a mosque,  and  sent  for  several  of  the  principal 
inhabitants,  who,  not  suspecting  any  violence,  instantly 
obeyed  his  summons.  No  sooner  were  they  within  the 
walls,  than  he  ordered  them  to  be  bound  hand  and  foot,  and 
immediately  set  olf  for  Cavalla,  regardless  of  the  pursuing 
multitude,  whom  he  overawed  by  threatening  to  put  his 
captives  to  death. 

This  resolute  step  procured  for  him  the  rank  of  Boulouk- 
bashi  and  a rich  wife,  a relation  of  his  patron  the  governor. 
As  it  is  not  uncommon  among  the  Turks  to  unite  the  duties 
of  a soldier  with  the  pursuits  of  a merchant,  Mohammed 
became  a dealer  in  tobacco, — a business  which  he  appears 
to  have  followed  with  considerable  success  till  the  invasion 
of  Egypt  by  the  French  called  him  to  fulfil  a higher  destiny 
in  a scene  of  active  warfare.  The  contingent  of  three  hun- 
dred men,  raised  by  the  township  of  Cavalla,  was  placed 
under  the  command  of  Ali,  who  was  now  decorated  with  the 
higher  title  of  Binbashi,  and  recognised  as  a captain  of 
regular  troops. 

His  conduct  in  the  field  of  battle  soon  attracted  the  notice 
of  the  pasha,  who  recommended  him  to  Kusrouf,  the  gov- 
ernor of  Cairo.  After  the  massacre  of  the  Mamlouks  at 
Aboukir,  the  young  Albanian  obtained  the  command 
of  a division  in  the  army  of  Yousef  Bey,  and  joined 
the  expedition  against  the  insurgent  chiefs,  which  termi- 
nated so  fatally  to  the  lives  as  well  as  to  the  reputation  of 
the  Turks.  Yousef,  it  has  been  already  mentioned,  accused 
Mohammed  of  misconduct  or  disaffection  so  extremely  pal- 
pable as  to  have  been  the  main  cause  of  their  miserable 
defeat.  ~ Whether  there  was  any  real  ground  for  this  charge 


234 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


it  is  impossible  to  determine  ; but  at  all  events  it  was 
believed  by  Kusrouf,  who  resolved  forthwith  to  expel  the 
Cavalliot  from  the  country,  as  a person  in  whom  he  could 
no  longer  place  confidence. 

But  the  pasha  was  not  aware  of  the  character  with  whom 
he  had  come  into  collision.  The  pay  of  the  troops  was  con- 
siderably in  arrear ; and  this  Mohammed  demanded  in  a 
resolute  tone,  as  the  sole  condition  on  which  he  would  yield 
obedience.  The  governor  sent  orders  that  he  should  appear 
before  him  in  the  night ; but  the  Roumelian  leader,  not  un- 
acquainted with  the  object  of  such  private  interviews,  re- 
turned for  answer  that  he  would  show  himself  in  broad  day- 
light in  the  midst  of  his  soldiers.  Perceiving  the  danger 
with  which  he  was  threatened,  Kusrouf  admitted  into  Cairo 
the  Albanian  guards  under  Taher  Pasha,  hoping  that  the 
intrigues  of  the  one  chief  would  counteract  those  of  the 
other.  But  in  this  expectation  he  was  grievously  disap- 
pointed ; for  the  mountaineers,  in  whatever  points  they 
might  differ,  were  unanimous  in  demanding  their  pay,  and 
in  all  the  measures  which  were  suggested  for  compelling 
him  to  advance  it.  They  attacked  the  palace,  reduced  the 
citadel,  drove  Kusrouf  and  his  household  from  the  city, 
and  finally  deposited  the  viceregal  power  in  the  hands  of  the 
Pasha  Taher. 

The  tyrannical  measures  of  this  new  ruler  brought  his 
reign  to  a close  at  the  end  of  twenty-two  days,  and  the  ac- 
tual government  of  the  country  reverted  to  the  hands  of  the 
Mamlouks,  under  the  aged  Ibrahim,  Osman  Bardissv,  and 
Mohammed  Ali.  The  Porte,  indeed,  sent  a pasha  of  high 
rank  to  assume  the  direction  of  affairs  at  Cairo  ; but  the 
beys,  having  once  more  the  upperhand,  and  mindful  of  the 
cruel  treachery  inflicted  upon  them  by  Hassan,  seized  the 
viceroy  at  Alexandria,  and  put  him  to  death. 

The  undisputed  ascendency  of  the  Mamlouks  might  in  the 
end  have  proved  fatal  to  Mohammed  Ali,  who  did  not  belong 
to  their  body.  For  this  reason  he  contrived  to  embroil  Bar- 
dissy,  who  has  been  called  the  Hotspur  of  the  beys,  with 
some  of  his  associates  ; and,  finally,  attacking  him  w ith  his 
own  hand,  drove  him  from  the  capital,  and  reinstated  the 
exiled  pasha,  whom  he  intended  to  use  merely  as  a tool  for 
effecting  his  own  purposes.  The  grand  signior,  suspecting 
his  ambitious  views,  issued  orders,  in  the  year  1804,  that 


MODERN  EGVPT. 


235 


the  Albanians  should  return  into  their  own  country ; intend- 
ing, it  may  be  presumed,  to  garrison  the  Egyptian  fortresses 
with  troops  less  disposed  to  insubordination.  Mohammed, 
whose  plans  were  gradually  advancing  towards  completion, 
disregarded  the  mandate  ; intimating  that  his  services  were 
still  necessary  to  repress  the  daring  designs  of  the  Mara- 
louks,  who  continued  to  occupy  the  greater  part  of  the  king- 
dom, while  they  breathed  avowed  hostility  against  the 
government  of  the  Porte.  The  following  year  a firman 
arrived,  conferring  upon  him  the  enviable  appointment  of 
pasha  of  Djidda,  and  of  the  port  of  Mecca  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  Red  Sea.  On  this  occasion  he  acceded  so  far 
as  to  assume  the  mantle  and  cap  peculiar  to  his  new  office  ; 
but  the  army,  prepared  for  the  scene  which  ensued,  flocked 
around  him,  uttering  the  most  seditious  language,  and 
threatening  immediate  violence  if  their  arrears  were  not  dis- 
charged. Mohammed  alone  could  rule  the  disturbed  ele- 
ments in  this  furious  tempest.  He  was  entreated  to  take 
upon  him  the  duties  of  viceroy, — to  save  Egypt  from  rebel- 
lion and  bloodshed, — and  to  preserve  an  important  province 
to  the  Turkish  empire.  The  wily  Albanian  seemed  to  be 
amazed  at  this  proposal,  and  refused  ; but  in  so  faint  a tone, 
that  the  petitioners  were  induced  to  repeat  and  urge  still 
more  strongly  their  request.  He  yielded  at  length  to  en- 
treaties which  he  himself  had  suggested,  accepted  the 
insignia  of  office,  and  was  proclaimed  by  the  shouts  of  his 
numerous  adherents  the  new  representative  of  the  grand 
signior.* 

Kourschid  Pasha,  who  was  now  in  the  capital,  endea- 
voured, by  inviting  the  dangerous  aid  of  the  Mamlouks,  to 
oppose  this  nomination.  But  while  he  was  making  prepa- 
rations to  take  the  field  against  the  usurper,  the  capitan 
pasha  unexpectedly  cast  anchor  before  Alexandria ; who 
forthwith  sent  orders  to  him  to  place  the  citadel  in  the  hands 
of  Mohammed,  and  also  to  repair  in  person,  without  delay, 
to  his  head-quarters  on  the  seacoast.  Kourschid  obeyed, 
and,  after  a short  period  of  service  in  other  quarters  of  the 
Turkish  empire,  lost  his  life. 

The  Mamlouks,  who  had  been  summoned  to  the  standard 
of  the  governor,  were  unwilling  to  lay  down  their  arms 

* Webster’s  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  56. 


236 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


until  they  should  have  once  more  tried  the  fortune  of  war 
against  their  old  enemy  the  Albanian  pasha.  The  latter, 
who  was  contriving  a snare  for  these  turbulent  horsemen, 
wished  nothing  more  ardently  than  that  they  should  attack 
him  in  Cairo ; nay,  he  suggested  to  the  sheiks,  on  whom 
he  had  the  greatest  reliance,  to  encourage  the  beys  in  their 
meditated  assault,  and  even  to  promise  them  assistance 
should  they  resolve  to ' enter  the  city.  The  Mamlouks, 
reposing  implicit  faith  in  these  pretended  friends,  seized 
the  first  opportunity  of  bursting  in  at  one  of  the  gates, 
which  had  been  opened  for  the  purpose  of  admitting  some 
countrymen  with  their  camels.  Dividing  their  numbers 
into  two  parties,  they  advanced  along  the  streets  sounding 
their  martial  instruments,  and  anticipating  a complete 
triumph.  But  they  soon  discovered  their  mistake ; for, 
being  attacked  by  the  inhabitants  on  all  sides,  driven  from 
post  to  post,  and  slaughtered  without  mercy,  they  sustained 
so  severe  a loss  as  from  that  moment  to  cease  to  be  formida- 
ble. All  the  prisoners  met  the  same  fate  ; and  eighty-three 
heads  were  sent  to  Constantinople  to  grace  the  walls  of  the 
imperial  seraglio. 

But  the  Sublime  Porte,  unwilling  that  any  one  interest 
should  obtain  the  ascendency  in  Egypt,  determined  now  to 
support  the  beys  ; and  accordingly  a capitan  pasha  was 
despatched  to  Alexandria  with  instructions  to  assist  Elfy, 
well  known  by  his  residence  in  England,  in  his  endeavours 
to  assume  the  viceregal  mantle,  and  thereby  to  depress  the 
rising  power  of  Mohammed.  This  envoy,  upon  his  arrival, 
sent  a capidji  bashi  to  Cairo,  summoning  Ali  to  appear  im- 
mediately at  that  port,  where  his  master  was  ready  to  bestow 
upon  him  the  government  of  Salonica.  The  Albanian 
chief  had  too  much  knowledge  of  the  policy  usually  pursued 
in  the  divan  to  accept  of  such  promotion.  He  asked  those 
around  him  whether  he  should  not  show  himself  a fool  and 
a craven  if,  after  having  won  the  supreme  station  with  only 
five  hundred  men  at  his  disposal,  he  were  to  abandon  his 
post  to  his  enemies,  now  that  he  counted  at  his  side  fifteen 
hundred  resolute  countrymen  and  companions  in  arms. 
u Cairo  is  to  be  publicly  sold  !”  he  exclaimed  ; — “ whoever 
will  give  most  blows  of  the  sabre  will  win  it,  and  remain 
master !” 

His  demeanour  towards  the  pasha  was,  at  the  same  time 


MODERN  EGYPT. 


237 


■submissive  and  dutiful ; he  regretted  that  the  mutinous 
state  of  the  army  would  not  permit  him  to  obey  the  sum- 
mons of  his  highness,  and  to  have  the  pleasure  of  showing 
how  ready  he  was  on  all  occasions  to  bow  the  knee  before 
a representative  of  his  imperial  lord.  At  this  very  moment 
he  was  plotting  with  the  beys,  and  sending  large  sums  of 
money  to  Constantinople,  to  secure  friends  on  both  sides  of 
the  Mediterranean.  At  length  the  sultan,  finding  that  Ah 
could  not  be  deposed,  and  perceiving  himself  on  the  eve  of 
a war  with  Russia,  forwarded  secret  orders  to  the  capitan 
to  make  the  best  terms  he  could  with  the  usurper,  and  to 
leave  him  in  possession  of  the  viceroyalty.  A short  time 
after  this  occurrence,  the  regular  diploma  confirming  him 
in  his  office  was  transmitted  by  the  Porte;  and  as  Elfy 
Bey  and  Bardissy,  the  most  powerful  of  his  enemies,  died 
about  the  same  period,  Mohammed  found  himself  the  master 
of  Egypt,  invested  with  a legal  title,  and  opposed  by  no 
one  whom  he  had  any  reason  to  fear.  To  complete  his 
conquest,  indeed,  he  advanced  into  Upper  Egypt  to  attack 
the  Mamlouks.  There  he  defeated  a large  body  of  their 
troops,  and  was  preparing  to  follow  them,  in  the  hope  of 
effecting  their  utter  annihilation  as  a political  body,  when 
he  received  despatches  from  Turkey  announcing  the  com- 
mencement of  hostilities  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
Ottoman  empire.* 

It  was  in  the  year  1807  that  the  English  ministry  sent  a 
second  expedition  into  Egypt,  with  the  view  of  preventing 
that  country  from  falling  again  into  the  hands  of  the  French, 
whose  ambassador  at  Constantinople  was  understood  to 
direct  the  politics  of  the  grand  signior.  The  number  of 
troops  under  the  British  general  did  not  exceed  five  thou- 
sand ; and  it  was  entirely  owing  to  the  ignorance  of  our 
government  in  regard  to  the  amount  of  the  Turkish  forces 
at  Alexandria,  and  the  strength  as  well  as  the  disposition 
of  the  Mamlouks,  that  they  exposed  such  a handful  of  men 
to  certain  destruction.  The  beys  availed  themselves  of  this 
opportunity  to  make  their  peace  with  Mohammed  Ali,  and 
consented  to  follow  his  standard  against  the  invaders,  who 
had  established  a footing  on  their  coast.  The  melancholy 
result  is  well  known.  Alexandria  yielded  to  General  Fraser 


* Webster's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  67 


238 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


after  a smart  encounter ; but,  failing  in  his  successive 
attempts  on  Rosetta  and  El  Hamet,  the  flower  of  our  little 
army  was  cut  off,  wounded,  or  taken  prisoners.  Four  hun- 
dred and  fifty  of  their  heads  were  publicly  exposed  at  Cairo, 
while  the  unfortunate  captives  were  treated  with  every  spe- 
cies of  contempt  and  cruelty. 

The  departure  of  the  British  allowed  the  pasha  to  return 
to  the  internal  affairs  of  his  turbulent  province.  As  he 
relied  chiefly  upon  the  army,  he  had  increased  its  numbers 
till  the  expense  of  maintenance  emptied  his  coffers,  and 
compelled  him,  in  order  to  replenish  them,  to  resort  to  mea- 
sures of  extreme  severity.  He  felt  that  his  popularity  was 
endangered ; and  being  convinced  that  the  Mamlouks 
would  embrace  the  first  opportunity  of  attempting  to  pre- 
cipitate him  from  the  viceregal  throne,  he  resolved  upon  their 
final  destruction  at  whatever  expense  of  candour  or  hu- 
manity. This  horrible  determination,  it  has  been  conjec- 
tured, was  confirmed  by  the  necessity  imposed  upon  him 
of  conducting  the  war  against  the  Wahabees  in  Arabia, — 
an  undertaking  in  which  he  could  not  engage  without  em- 
ploying in  that  country  his  best  troops  and  commanders. 
The  Porte  had  urged  him  to  prepare  for  this  expedition,  so 
important  to  the  purity  of  the  faith  and  to  the  integrity  of 
the  empire  ; rewarding  him,  beforehand,  by  conferring  upon 
his  favourite  son,  Toussoun,  the  dignity  of  a pasha  of  the 
second  order. 

The  same  youth  had  been  appointed  by  his  father  general 
of  the  army  which  was  destined  to  serve  in  Arabia.  The 
1st  day  of  March,  1811,  was  named  for  the  investiture  of 
the  new  chief, — a ceremony  which  was  to  take  place  in  the 
citadel.  The  Mamlouks  were  invited  to  share  in  the  parade 
and  festivities  of  the  occasion  ; and  accordingly,  under  the 
command  of  Chahyn  Bey,  and  arrayed  in  their  most  splendid 
uniform,  they  appeared  at  the  hall  of  audience,  and  offered 
to  the  pasha  their  hearty  congratulations.  Mohammed 
received  them  with  the  greatest  affability.  They  were 
presented  with  coffee,  and  he  conversed  with  them  indi- 
vidually with  apparent  openness  of  heart  and  serenity  of 
countenance. 

The  procession  was  ordered  to  move  from  the  citadel 
along  a passage  cut  out  in  the  rock ; the  pasha’s  troops 
marching  first,  followed  by  the  Mamlouk  corps  mounted  as 


MODERN  EGYPT. 


239 


usual.  As  soon,  however,  as  they  had  passed  the  gate,  it 
was  shut  behind  them,  while  the  opposite  end  of  the  defile 
being  also  closed,  they  were  caught,  as  it  were,  in  a trap. 
Mohammed’s  soldiers  had  been  ordered  to  the  top  of  the 
rocks,  where  they  were  perfectly  secure  from  the  aim  of  the 
Mamlouks,  while  they  poured  down  volleys  of  shot  upon 
their  defenceless  victims,  who  were  butchered  almost  to  the 
last  man.  Some  of  them,  indeed,  succeeded  in  taking 
refuge  in  the  pasha’s  harem,  and  in  the  house  of  Toussoun  ; 
but  they  were  all  dragged  forth,  conducted  before  the  kiaya 
bey,  and  beheaded  on  the  spot.  The  lifeless  body  of  the 
brave  Chahyn  was  exposed  to  every  infamy.  A rope  was 
passed  round  the  neck,  and  the  bloody  carcass  dragged 
through  various  parts  of  the  city.  Mengin,  who  was  in 
Cairo  at  the  time,  assures  his  readers  that  the  streets  during 
two  whole  days  bore  the  appearance  of  a place  taken  by 
assault.  Every  kind  and  degree  of  violence  was  committed 
under  pretence  of  searching  for  the  devoted  Mamlouks  ; 
and  it  was  not  until  five  hundred  houses  were  sacked,  much 
valuable  property  destroyed,  and  many  lives  lost,  that  Ali 
and  his  son  ventured  out  of  the  citadel  to  repress  the  popular 
fury.* 

Mohammed  noted  among  the  slain  four  hundred  and 
seventy  mounted  Mamlouks,  besides  their  attendants  who 
usually  served  on  foot.  The  number  of  victims  in  the  end 
did  not  fall  short  of  a thousand ; for  orders  were  given  to 
pursue  this  devoted  race  into  the  remotest  parts  of  the 
country,  and,  if  possible,  to  exterminate  them  throughout 
the  whole  pashalic.  The  heads  of  the  principal  officers 
were  embalmed,  and  sent  as  an  acceptable  present  to  the 
sultan  at  Constantinople.  Only  one  of  the  beys,  whose 
name  was  Amim,  is  understood  to  have  escaped  the  massacre 
in  Cairo.  Being  detained  by  business,  he  was  too  late  to 
occupy  his  proper  place  in  the  procession,  and  he  only 
arrived  at  the  citadel  at  the  moment  when  the  troops  were 
passing  the  gate.  He  waited  till  they  had  entered  the  fatal 
passage,  intending  to  join  his  own  body ; but  seeing  the 
gate  shut  suddenly,  and  hearing,  almost  immediately  after, 
the  discharge  of  firearms,  he  put  spurs  to  his  horse  and 

* Histoire  de  1’Egypte  sous  le  Gouvernement  de  Mohammed  Ali,  par 
M.  Felix  Mengin,  &c.  tom.  i.  p.  363-365.  . 


240 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


galloped  out  of  the  city.  He  afterward  retired  with  a small 
suite  into  Syria. 

It  is  impossible  to  refrain  from  condemning  the  cruel  and 
faithless  conduct  of  Mohammed  on  this  memorable  occasion. 
He  may  have  received  orders  from  Constantinople  to  anni- 
hilate those  ambitious  and  turbulent  soldiers  who  acknow- 
ledged no  master  but  their  own  chief,  and  no  laws  except 
such  as  suited  their  licentious  habits.  But  it  is  difficult, 
notwithstanding,  to  find  an  apology  for  the  deliberate  cold- 
hearted  treachery  which  disgraced  the  execution  of  the 
imperial  mandate.  So  little  compunction,  too,  did  he  feel 
when  reflecting  on  the  occurrence,  that  we  are  told  by  Men- 
gin,  on  being  infonned  that  he  was  reproached  by  all  travel- 
lers in  their  narratives  for  this  inhuman  massacre,  he  replied, 
that  he  would  have  a picture  of  it  painted  together  with  one 
of  the  murder  of  the  Due  d’Enghien,  and  leave  to  posterity 
what  judgment  it  might  pass  on  the  two  events.  This 
argumentum  ad  hominem  might  silence  a Frenchman  who 
had  followed  the  standard  of  Buonaparte,  but  it  goes  only  a 
very  little  way  to  remove  the  impression  of  abhorrence  which 
must  be  retained  by  every  heart  not  altogether  insensible  to 
those  eternal  distinctions  on  which  all  moral  judgments  must 
be  founded.* 

* For  a striking  account  of  the  massacre  of  the  Mamlouks,  see  “ Life 
and  Adventures  of  Giovanni  Finati,”  vol.  i.  p.  101,  &c.  He  varies  in  a 
few  particulars  from  the  narrative  of  Mengin,  although  in  the  essential 
points  there  is  no  material  difference.  The  beys,  he  tells  us,  were  not 
assembled  to  grace  the  reception  of  the  Pelisse  by  the  young  pasha,  but 
to  consult  with  the  viceroy  about  the  approaching  war  with  the  Arabian 
schismatics;  and  Mengin  himself  relates  that  Toussoun  was  not  in- 
vested with  the  ensigns  of  his  office  till  more  than  a month  afterward. 
The  chief,  too,  called  Chahyn  by  the  latter  author,  is  by  Finati  denomi- 
nated Sa'im,— an  example  of  the  discrepancy  which  arises  from  the  prac- 
tice adopted  by  travellers  in  Egypt  of  spelling  according  to  the  pronun- 
ciation of  their  respective  countries. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  Frenchman  should  have  omitted  an  anecdote 
of  Amim  Bey,  which  made  a great  noise  at  the  time,  and  was  repeated 
to  Mr.  W.  Banks  by  that  officer  himself  when  he  met  him  at  a subse- 
quent period  in  Syria.  “This  chief,  who  was  brother  to  the  celebrated 
Elfy,  urged  the  noble  animal  which  he  rode  to  an  act  of  greater  despera- 
tion, for  he  spurred  him  till  he  made  him  clamber  upon  the  rampart,  and 
preferring  rather  to  be  dashed  to  pieces  than  to  be  slaughtered  in  cold 
blood,  drove  him  to  leap  down  the  precipice,  a height  that  has  been  esti 
mated  at  from  thirty  to  forty  feet,  or  even  more ; yet  fortune  so  favoured 
him,  that,  though  the  horse  was  killed,  the  rider  escaped.” — Finati,  110. 

Sir  F.  Henniker  says  of  him,  “ His  horse  leaped  over  the  parapet,  like 
leaping  out  of  a four  pair  of  stairs  window.  The  horse  was  killed. 


MODERN  EGYPT. 


241 


Mohammed  Ali  was  now  at  liberty  to  devote  his  attention 
to  the  state  of  things  in  Arabia,  whither  his  son  Toussoun 
Pasha,  had  been  sent  to  command  the  army.  His  campaign 
had  already  been  crowned  with  several  successes  against  the 
Wahabees  ; he  had  taken  the  city  of  Medina,  the  keys  of 
which  his  father  had  sent  to  the  Porte,  with  large  presents 
of  money,  jewels,  coffee,  and  other  valuable  articles.  The 
viceroy  himself  now  thought  it  time  to  pay  his  devotions  at 
the  shrine  of  Mecca,  and  accordingly  made  a voyage  across 
the  Red  Sea.  At  Djidda  he  was  received  with  all  kindness 
and  hospitality  by  the  Shereef  Ghaleb  ; in  return  for  which, 
to  gratify  either  his  avarice  or  his  political  suspicion,  he 
gave  secret  orders  to  Toussoun  to  seize  and  convey  him  to 
Cairo.  Meanwhile  he  plundered  the  palace  of  immense 
treasures,  part  of  which  he  applied  to  the  support  of  the 
army,  and  part  he  shared  with  his  master,  the  sultan  ; but 
the  latter,  on  understanding  the  manner  in  which  they  had 
been  obtained,  had  honesty  enough  to  return  them  to  their 
owner  through  Mohammed. 

The  various  occurrences  of  the  Arabian  war  are  not  of 
sufficient  interest  to  the  general  reader  to  warrant  a minute 
detail.  Suffice  it  to  observe,  that  under  the  direction  of 
Toussoun  the  Egyptian  army  suffered  considerable  reverses, 
and  was  not  a little  reduced  both  in  number  and  in  spirit  when 
Mohammed  Ali  himself  assumed  the  command.  His  presence 
in  the  camp  immediately  restored  discipline  and  confidence 
to  such  a degree  that  the  troops  longed  for  an  opportunity 
to  revenge  their  losses  in  the  field,  and,  if  possible,  to  bring 
the  contest  to  the  issue  of  a general  action.  Their  wishes 
in  tliis  respect  were  soon  gratified  ; for  the  enemy,  who  had 
begun  to  despise  the  invaders,  and  even  to  pour  upon  them 
the  most  insolent  and  opprobrious  language,  were  easily 
induced  to  relinquish  their  position  where  they  could  not 
have  been  attacked,  and  to  meet  the  viceroy  on  equal  ground, 
where  he  could  hardly  fail  to  secure  a decisive  victory.  The 
battle  of  Basille  terminated  the  campaign  of  1815,  and 
opened  up  to  the  conqueror  a flattering  view  of  ultimate 
success.  But  disease  found  its  way  into  his  ranks ; the 
Albanians  were  fatigued  and  disgusted  with  a war  of  posts 

The  bey  intrusted  himself  to  some  Arabs  (Albanians  according  to 
Finati),  who,  notwithstanding  the  offer  of  a large  reward,  would  not 
deliver  him  up.”  P.  64. 


X 


242 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


against  barbarians  still  more  savage  than  themselves  ; and 
they  did  not  conceal  from  the  pasha  that  they  expected 
to  be  relieved,  and  allowed  to  seek  for  health  on  the  banks 
of  the  Nile.  This  chief  knew  his  countrymen  too  well  to 
resist  their  inclinations  in  a matter  so  closely  connected  with 
their  feelings  ; he  acknowledged  the  justice  of  their  claim  ; 
assured  them  that  he  also  meant  to  return  to  Cairo  ; and 
proceeded  instantly  to  make  arrangements  for  carrying  his 
plan  into  execution. 

The  military  experience  which  Mohammed  had  acquired 
when  opposed  to  European  armies  convinced  him  of  the 
necessity  of  improving  the  tactics  of  his  Turks  and  Arabs. 
For  this  purpose  he  employed  several  French  soldiers,  who 
deserted  during  the  expedition  under  Buonaparte,  to  intro- 
duce the  new  system  ; and  immediately  a regular  course  of 
drilling  was  begun,  and  enforced,  too,  with  a strictness  and 
severity  that  only  tended  to  exasperate  the  feelings,  and  to 
ripen  projects  of  resistance  and  revenge.  From  the  very 
first  the  native  troops  regarded  this  discipline  with  the 
utmost  jealousy  and  aversion,  as  a direct  invasion  of  the 
rights  and  liberties  of  their  profession.  Their  resentment 
soon  found  vent  against  the  subaltern  officers,  whom  they 
assassinated  in  the  streets,  and  even  on  parade.  This,  how- 
ever, far  from  deterring  the  government,  only  led  to  higher 
degrees  of  constraint  and  compulsion,  till  at  length  the 
odium  which  had  ceased  to  attach  itself  to  the  mere  instru- 
ments of  the  experiment,  extended  to  the  highest  authori- 
ties, and  even  to  the  ruler  himself.  If  we  must  have  the 
French  discipline,  said  the  discontented,  let  us  carry  the 
French  system  a little  farther,  and  let  us  have  our  revolution 
too.  Accordingly,  upon  a day  previously  fixed, — the  4th 
August,  1815, — all  the  troops  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Cairo  broke  out  into  open  mutiny  and  revolt,  with  the  pro- 
fessed purpose  of  plundering  the  city,  and  putting  Moham- 
med Ali  to  death.  After  falling  upon  such  of  the  officers 
as  had  escaped  the  violence  directed  against  them  individu- 
ally, they  marched  towards  the  citadel  in  a formidable  body ; 
and,  had  not  the  pillage  of  the  bazaars  attracted  their  atten- 
tion in  the  first  instance,  the  chiefs  of  the  government,  who 
were  quite  unprepared  for  the  attack,  could  hardly  have  found 
safety. 

The  pasha  fortunately  was  not  in  the  citadel,  but  in  one 


MODERN  EGYPT. 


243 


of  his  palaces  which  stands  in  a large  open  square,  near 
the  European  division  of  the  capital.  More  mindful  of  the 
Franks  than  of  his  own  welfare,  he  sent  to  them,  upon  the 
breaking  out  of  the  disturbance,  five  hundred  muskets,  with 
ammunition  sufficient  to  serve  the  purpose  of  their  defence. 
Meanwhile,  it  being  taken  for  granted  that  he  was  in  the 
fortress,  no  search  was  made  for  him  elsewhere  ; though  he 
had  to  endure  many  bitter  hours  of  suspense,  galled  as  he 
must  have  been  by  the  ingratitude  of  his  army,  and  liable 
every  moment  to  be  dragged  forth  to  destruction.  He  was 
at  length  extricated  from  his  perilous  situation  by  the  fidelity 
and  courage  of  Abdim  Bey,  an  Albanian,  brother  to  Has- 
san  Pasha,  whom  he  had  left  in  the  command  of  the  Arabian 
army.  This  officer  had  a particular  attachment  to  his 
person  ; and  having  drawn  together  about  three  hundred  of 
his  own  nation  who  had  continued  loyal,  went  to  the  palace 
where  he  was  concealed,  placed  him  under  this  faithful 
escort,  and  forced  a passage  to  the  citadel,  where  he  was 
lodged  in  perfect  security. 

This  took  place  late  in  the  evening  of  that  day  of  confu- 
sion and  terror  ; and  when  it  was  discovered  that  the  pasha 
had  been  so  long  within  their  reach,  disappointment  exas- 
perated the  soldiers  to  fresh  excesses,  and  a renewal  of  the 
pillage.  Before  morning  Mohammed  had  proclaimed  a 
general  amnesty,  on  condition  that  the  troops  would  return 
to  their  duty,  pledging  himself,  at  the  same  time,  that  the 
obnoxious  system  should  be  discontinued,  and  promising  to 
the  merchants  and  inhabitants  who  had  been  pillaged  a full 
indemnity  for  their  losses.  This  declaration  produced  the 
desired  effect,  and  Cairo  was  immediately  restored  to  a 
state  of  tranquillity  and  peace  ; while  the  great  number  of 
individuals  who  were  implicated  in  the  guilt  of  disaffection, 
rendered  it  prudent  in  his  highness  to  adhere  strictly  to  the 
terms  of  the  pardon  which  he  had  announced. 

It  could  hardly  be  doubted  that  in  a rising  of  this  nature, 
where  there  was  evidently  so  much  of  concert  and  of 
secrecy,  there  must  have  been  some  prime  mover,  possess- 
ing weight  and  influence  among  the  soldiers  ; and  hence  no 
pains  were  spared  by  the  government  in  order  to  obtain  in- 
formation. Giovanni  Finati,  who  was  himself  an  actor  in 
the  scene  which  he  describes,  asserts  that  no  clew  was  ever 
obtained  which  could  ’ead  to  a discovery  of  the  principal 


244 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


insurgents.  But  Belzoni,  -who  was  in  Egypt  at  the  same 
period,  remarks  that  there  was  reason  to  think  the  pasha 
knew  who  the  chief  instigators  were,  for  it  was  found  that 
several  persons  shortly  after  “ died  of  sudden  deaths,  and 
indeed  many  of  the  chiefs  and  beys  disappeared.”* 

No  attempt  appears  to  have  been  made  for  some  time 
after  the  failure  now  described  to  introduce  the  European 
discipline.  In  the  year  1821,  when  Sir  F.  Henniker  was  at 
Grand  Cairo,  the  old  system  prevailed,  and  is  amusingly 
exposed  in  the  following  description  : — “ Saw  the  infantry 
(Albanians)  mustered.  An  attempt  to  drill  these  lawless 
ragamuffins  occasioned  the  last  insurrection, — no  marching 
and  countermarching, — no  playing  at  soldiers.  They, 
however,  suffer  themselves  to  be  drawn  up  in  line  to  listen 
to  the  music, — if  such  it  may  be  called  when  produced  by 
drums  and  squeaking  Moorish  fifes  in  the  hands  of  Turks ; 
a number  of  voices  frequently  chimed  in,  and  destroyed  the 
monotony ; during  this  the  soldiers  were  quiet.  It  is 
nearly  impossible  to  distinguish  officers  from  privates ; 
every  man  provides  himself  with  clothes  and  arms  according 
to  his  means ; there  is  only  this  family  likeness  among 
them, — that  pistols,  swords,  and  a shirt,  outwardly  exhibited, 
are  necessary.  An  Albanian  is  not  improved  since  the 
time  of  Alexander ; he  is  still  a soldier  and  a robber. 
Ibrahim  Pasha  having,  as  he  says,  conquered  the  Waha- 
bees,  made  his  triumphal  entry  this  morning ; first  came 
the  cavalry, — horses  of  all  sizes,  ages,  colours,  and  quali- 
ties ; an  Arab  Fellah  attendant  upon  each  soldier  carried  a 
musket ; every  soldier  carried — a pipe  ; occasionally  the 
prelude  of  a kettle-drum,  hammered  monotonously  with  a 
short  leathern  strap,  announced  a person  of  consequence : 
the  consequence  consisted  in  eight  or  nine  dirty  Arabs, 
carrying  long  sticks,  and  screaming  tumultuously ; then 
came  the  infantry,  a long  straggling  line  of  Albanians ; 
then  a flag ; then  a long  pole,  surmounted  by  a gilt  ball, — 
from  this  suspended  a flowing  tail  of  horsehair ; then  a 
second  flag,  a second  tail,  a third  flag,  and  the  pasha’s  third 
tail ; the  victor  covered  with  a white  satin  gown,  and  a 
high  conical  cap  of  the  same  military  material ; this  Caesar 

* Life  and  Adventures  of  Giovanni  Finati,  vol.  ii.  p.  71 ; Belzoni’s 
Narrative,  vol.  ii.  p.  9. 


MODERN  EGYPT. 


245 


looked  like  a sick  girl  coming  from  the  bath.  The  mobility 
closed  this  Hudibrastic  triumph.  Having  traversed  the 
town,  they  vented  their  exultation  in  gunpowder.  The 
Turkish  soldiers,  whether  in  fun  or  earnest,  always  fire 
with  ball ; and  on  a day  of  rejoicing  it  commonly  happens 
that  several  are  killed ; these  accidents  fall  in  general  on 
the  Franks.”* 

In  relating  the  triumph  of  Ibrahim,  we  have  somewhat 
anticipated  the  course  of  events.  His  brother  Toussoun  had 
some  time  before  fallen  the  victim  of  poison  or  disease, 
whence  arose  the  necessity  of  appointing  a new  com- 
mander of  equal  rank  to  carry  on  that  war,  already  waged 
so  long  and  with  so  little  success  against  the  heretics 
of  Derayeh.  More  than  a century  had  passed  since  Abdul 
Wahab,  the  Socinus  of  the  Mohammedans,  disturbed  the 
belief  of  the  faithful  by  certain  innovations  in  their  doc- 
trine respecting  the  character  and  offices  of  the  prophet. 
The  austerity  of  his  life  drew  around  him  a great  number 
of  followers,  and  at  length,  finding  himself  sufficiently 
strong  to  brave  the  power  of  the  provincial  governors,  he 
attacked  without  any  reserve  the  rank  idolatry  of  the  wonted 
pilgrimages  to  the  tomb  of  Mohammed,  and  the  absurdity 
of  putting  any  trust  in  relics,  ablutions,  or  any  outward 
ceremonies.  He  inculcated  the  principles  of  pure  deism, 
and  reduced  the  whole  duty  of  man,  as  a religious  being, 
to  prayer  and  good  works. 

Had  he  confined  the  objects  of  his  mission  to  article? 
of  faith  or  new  modes  of  piety,  it  is  not  probable  that  the 
Ottoman  Porte  would  have  disturbed  him  in  the  exercise 
of  his  vocation.  But  as  he  found  the  use  of  arms  necessary 
to  convince  hardened  skeptics,  as  well  as  to  destroy  the 
monuments  of  their  idolatry,  he  permitted  the  zeal  of  his 
followers  to  display  itself  in  military  ardour,  and  in  the 
formation  of  disciplined  bands.  On  one  occasion  his  suc- 
ceJ3>:  advanced  into  Persia  at  the  head  of  20,000  men, 
resolving  to  capture  the  city  of  Kirbeleh,  and  to  lay  waste 
the  tomb  of  Hassan,  the  son  of  Ali  and  grandson  of  the 
prophet.  The  spirit  of  persecution  breathed  in  all  his 
actions  ; the  inhabitants  were  put  to  the  sword ; and  the 

* Notes  during  a Visit,  &c.  By  Sir  Frederick  Henniker,  p.  66. 

X 2 


246 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


sepulchre — a favourite  place  of  pilgrimage  among  the  Per- 
sians,— was  plundered  and  desecrated. 

In  short,  a dynasty  of  these  fanatical  warriors  had  es- 
tablished itself  on  the  throne  of  Derayeh.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  century  Abdelazeoz,  the  son  of  Abdul, 
was  murdered  by  a native  of  Kirbeleh,  to  revenge  the  in- 
dignities committed  upon  the  holy  tomb, — an  event  which 
was  followed  by  a renewal  of  hostility  and  the  shedding 
of  much  blood.  His  successor,  Sehood,  began  his  career 
of  retaliation  by  directing  the  power  of  his  arms  against 
Bassora  and  Irak.  The  Shereef  of  Mecca,  who  took  the 
field  in  order  to  check  his  progress,  was  defeated  in  every 
battle  and  compelled  to  sue  for  peace.  But  no  sooner  were 
terms  concluded  than  the  Wahabite,  at  the  head  of  40,000 
men,  marched  to  Medina,  which  was  obliged  to  open  its 
gates ; when,  following  up  his  success,  he  proceeded  to 
Mecca,  where  he  met  with  as  little  opposition.  Here  he 
ordered  the  tomb  of  the  prophet  to  be  opened,  whence  he 
abstracted  the  numerous  jewels,  consisting  of  diamonds, 
pearls,  rubies,  and  emeralds,  which  had  been  long  venerated 
by  the  pious  disciples  of  the  Koran.  He  melted  the  golden 
vessels,  the  chandeliers,  and  vases  ; and  having  exposed 
the  whole  to  public  sale,  he  distributed  the  money  among 
his  soldiers.  This  act  of  daring  sacrilege  excited  against 
Sehood  the  indignation  of  every  Mussulman  who  had  not 
thrown  off  all  reverence  for  the  founder  of  his  religion ; 
while  his  military  resources,  employed  with  so  much 
vigour,  did  not  fail  to  alarm  the  government  at  Constanti- 
nople, who  immediately  sent  orders  to  Mohammed  Ali  to 
chastise  the  presumptuous  heretic  and  deliver  the  holy  city 
from  his  arms. 

But  the  success  which  finally  attended  the  expedition 
of  the  Egyptian  pasha  was  owing  to  the  death  of  Sehood 
rather  than  to  the  bravery  or  skill  of  the  Turkish  generals. 
The  Wahabite  chief  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Abdallah, 
who  possessed  neither  talent  nor  courage  equal  to  the 
arduous  duties  which  he  was.  called  upon  to  discharge. 
After  a vain  attempt  at  negotiation  he  allowed  himself  to 
be  besieged  in  his  capital,  which,  after  a feeble  defence 
during  three  months,  he  was  obliged  to  surrender  together 
with  his  own  personal  liberty.  He  was  sent  to  Constanti- 


MODERN  EUROPE. 


247 


nople,  where  he  was  first  exposed  to  the  execration  and 
contempt  of  the  populace,  and  then  deprived  of  his  head 
like  a common  malefactor.  Ibrahim  is  remembered  as  the 
scourge  of  Arabia  and  the  curse  of  Derayeh.  His  father, 
in  a moment  of  pag^ion  against  the  Wahabees,  had  threat- 
ened to  destroy  their  city  so  that  one  stone  of  it  should  not 
be  left  upon  another, — a menace  which  was  executed  to  the 
fullest  extent.  The  inhabitants  who  escaped  the  sword 
were  chased  into  the  desert,  where  many  of  them  must  have 
perished ; meantime  the  pasha  returned  in  triumph  to 
Cairo  in  the  manner  described  by  Sir  F.  Henniker. 

But  the  severity  of  Ibrahim  did  not  put  an  end  to  the 
Wahabite  reformation,  nor  to  the  spirit  of  resistance  by 
which  its  abetters  were  animated.  On  the  contrary,  the 
war  was  renewed  in  1824  with  as  much  ferocity  as  ever, 
and  apparently  with  increased  means  on  the  part  of  the  in- 
surgents of  bringing  it  to  a successful  issue.  It  was  pro- 
tracted during  the  three  following  years  with  alternate 
advantage  ; having  been,  during  the  latter  portion  of  that 
interval,  allowed  to  slumber,  owing  to  the  struggle  made  by 
the  Greeks  in  the  Morea  to  recover  their  liberty.  The  par- 
ticulars of  the  several  campaigns  are  given  with  consider- 
able minuteness  by  Planat,  who  held  an  office  under  the 
viceroy  of  Egypt,  and  who  took  upon  himself  to  write  the 
history  of  the  “ Regeneration”  which  that  remarkable  per- 
sonage has  effected  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Pharaohs. 
Suffice  it  to  observe  that  it  was  in  a succession  of  battles 
with  the  Wahabees  that  Mohammed  Ali  first  derived 
advantage  from  his  improved  system  of  tactics.  His  in- 
fantry, disciplined  by  French  officers  and  instructed  in  the 
European  method  of  moving  large  masses  in  the  field, 
proved  decidedly  superior  in  every  conflict  where  the  nature 
of  the  ground  permitted  a military  evolution.* 

It  may  be  inferred  from  the  statement  just  made  that  the 
viceroy  was  not  deterred  by  the  tumult  at  Cairo  from 
resuming  at  a proper  time  the  plan  he  had  already  matured 
for  introducing  into  his  army  the  drill  of  modern  Europe. 
Aware  of  the  obstinacy  which  characterizes  the  Albanians, 

* Histoire  de  la  Regeneration  de  1’Egypte,  &c.  Par  Jules  Planat, 
ancien  Officior  de  l’Artillerie  de  la  Garde  Imperiale,  et  chef  d’Etat-major 
au  service  du  Pacha  d’Egypte.  Gendve,  1830,  p.  238. 


248 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


he  left  them  to  be  shamed  out  of  their  awkward  and  inef- 
ficient system  by  witnessing  the  improvement  of  the  other 
troops  ; resolving  to  put  his  experiment  to  the  test  on  the 
Fellahs  of  Egypt,  and  on  the  still  more  unsophisticated 
natives  of  Sennaar  and  Kordofan.  With  this  view,  as  well 
as  to  reduce  the  remoter  provinces  of  the  upper  country  to 
his  obedience,  he  fitted  out,  in  1820,  an  expedition  which 
he  placed  under  the  command  of  his  son  Ishmael,  whom  he 
charged  with  instructions  for  accomplishing  the  double  pur- 
pose now  stated.  The  success  of  the  young  general  fulfilled 
the  expectations  of  Mohammed  Ali.  Thousands  of  captives 
were  sent  from  the  conquered  districts  to  the  neighbourhood 
of  Es  Souan,  where  they  were  formed  into  battalions,  and 
subjected  to  all  the  restraint  and  fatigue  of  European  dis- 
cipline. 

We  are  told  that  these  unhappy  beings  were  in  the  first 
place  vaccinated,  and  that,  as  soon  as  they  recovered  from 
this  factitious  distemper,  they  were  put  into  the  hands  of 
French  officers  to  be  instructed  in  the  manual  exercise  and 
other  military  arts,  according  to  the  latest  institutions  of  the 
Buonapartean  school.  The  hopes  of  the  pasha  were  at  first 
greatly  disappointed  in  these  black  troops.  They  were  in- 
deed strong  and  able-bodied,  and  not  averse  from  being 
taught ; but  when  attacked  by  disease,  which  soon  broke 
out  in  the  camp,  they  died  like  sheep  infected  with  the  rot. 
The  medical  men  ascribed  the  mortality  to  moral  rather 
than  to  physical  causes.  . It  appeared  in  numerous  in- 
stances, that  having  been  snatched  away  from  their  houses 
and  families,  they  were  even  anxious  to  get  rid  of  life  ; and 
so  numerous  were  the  deaths  which  ensued,  that  out  of 
20,000  of  these  unfortunate  persons,  three  thousand  did 
not  remain  alive  at  the  end  of  two  years. 

But  nothing  could  shake  the  determination  of  the  viceroy. 
He  placed  five  hundred  faithful  Mamlouks  under  the  charge 
of  Colonel  Seve,  formerly  aid-de-camp  to  Marshal  Ney, 
who  were  trained  to  fulfil  the  duties  of  officers.  As  the 
blacks,  for  the  reasons  already  mentioned,  were  found  unfit 
for  this  laborious  service,  he  impressed,  according  to  the 
rules  of  a national  conscription,  about  thirty  thousand 
Arabs  and  peasants,  whom  he  sent  under  a military  guard 
to  Upper  Egypt.  Planat  informs  us,  that  in  1827  twelve 
regiments  were  organized,  tolerably  well  clothed  in  a plain 


MODERN  EGYPT. 


249 


uniform,  and  armed  after  the  manner  of  European  soldiers  ; 
and  as  it  is  intended  that  every  regiment  shall  consist  of 
five  battalions  of  eight  hundred  men,  the  military  establish- 
ment, in  infantry  alone,  will  amount  to  about  fifty  thousand. 
There  are,  besides,  several  corps  of  cavalry,  artillery,  and 
even  marines  ; which  last  are  stationed  at  Alexandria,  to 
serve  on  board  the  ships  of  war  whenever  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  meet  an  enemy  at  sea. 

The  colonels  of  regiments  are  extremely  well  paid, 
having  allowances  which  amount  to  not  less  than  1500Z. 
a-year.  Their  dress,  too,  is  very  rich,  consisting  of  red 
cloth,  covered  with  gold  lace,  and  a cluster  of  diamonds,  in 
the  form  of  a half-moon,  on  each  breast.  Over  this  they 
wear,  on  state  occasions,  a scarlet  pelisse,  which  fastens 
over  the  body  with  two  large  clasps  of  gold  set  with  eme- 
ralds. Their  upper  dress  is  closed  with  a sash  ; and  the 
Turkish  full  trousers  have  given  way  to  a more  convenient 
habiliment,  which  is  tied  under  the  knee,  and  fitted  to  the 
legs  like  gaiters.  The  pay  of  the  non-commissioned  officers 
is  likewise  ample ; and  that  of  the  men  eighteen  piasters  a 
month,  with  full  rations  of  good  provisions,  and  their  cloth- 
ing. They  are  now  content,  and  even  attached  to  the 
service  ; while  a considerable  spirit  of  emulation  prevails 
among  them,  excited  in  a great  measure  by  the  impartial 
manner  in  which  promotion  ffom  the  ranks  is  bestowed, 
according  to  the  merit  of  the  candidates.  It  is  worthy  of 
notice,  too,  that  the  men  are  no  longer  liable  to  arbitrary 
punishment.  Every  one  committing  a fault  must  be  tried 
before  he  can  be  bastinadoed,  and  generally  some  other 
penalty  is  inflicted,  such  as  confinement,  degradation,  or 
hard  labour.  The  officers,  again,  when  they  forget  their 
duty  or  their  character,  are  placed  under  arrest ; and  even 
the  viceroy  himself  does  not  pretend  to  decide  as  to  their 
guilt,  but  leaves  the  result  to  the  award  of  justice,  regulated 
by  martial  law. 

The  superiority  of  troops  prepared  for  the  field  according 
to  the  European  method  was,  as  we  have  already  stated, 
most  distinctly  manifested  in  the  several  campaigns  which 
they  served  against  the  Wahabees, — a circumstance  which 
afforded  to  the  viceroy  a degree  of  delight  almost  beyond 
expression.  This  first  step  in  the  improvement  of  an  art, 
valuable  above  all  others  to  a governor  placed  in  the  cir- 


250 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


curastances  which  he  occupied,  was  due  almost  entirely  to 
Colonel  Seve,  whose  name  has  been  already  mentioned. 
This  able  officer  encountered  much  opposition  from  the  bar- 
barians whom  he  was  appointed  to  superintend  ; but,  with 
the  tact  which  belongs  to  a man  who  has  inspected  society 
in  all  its  forms,  he  subdued  the  ferocity  of  the  savage  by 
assuming  a tone  more  commanding  than  that  of  mere  ani- 
mal courage.  The  Mamlouks  were  occasionally  so  discon- 
tented as  to  threaten  his  life  ; but  he  never  lost  his  firm- 
ness ; and,  by  offering  to  meet  single-handed  those  who 
conspired  against  his  authority,  he  gained  the  respect 
which  is  always  lavished  by  untutored  minds  upon  fearless 
hardihood,  and  at  length  became  a favourite  among  all 
classes  of  the  military.  Planat  tells  us,  that  on  one  occa- 
sion, when  a volley  was  fired,  a ball  whizzed  past  the  ear 
of  Seve.  Without  the  slightest  emotion,  he  commanded 
the  party  to  reload  their  pieces.  “You  are  very  bad 
marksmen,”  he  exclaimed  ; — “ Make  ready, — fire  !”  They 
fired,  but  no  ball  was  heard:  the  self-possession  of  the 
Frenchman  disarmed  their  resentment ; they  thought  him 
worthy  of  admiration  ; and  at  length  were  ready  to  ac- 
knowledge that  in  point  of  acquirement  and  professional 
experience  he  was  decidedly  a better  man  than  them- 
selves.* He  afterward  fell  while  serving  in  Greece. 

Great  merit  was  unquestionably  due  to  this  officer  for 
the  reformation  which  he  had  effected  in  the  viceroy’s 
army  ; but  beyond  this  we  cannot  speak  of  him  without 
the  strongest  expressions  of  contempt  and  detestation,  it 
being  universally  known  that  he  had  adopted  the  religion 
of  Mohammed, — soothing  and  cloaking  his  degradation 
with  the  name  of  Suliman  Bey,  and  under  the  title  of  Mir- 
allai,  or  commander  of  four  thousand.  He  received  his 
pelisse  and  his  advancement  on  the  morning  of  Christmas- 
day, — as  if  he  had  expressly  intended  to  insult  the  faith 
which  he  hadjust  renounced, — a sacrifice  on  his  part  which, 
however  trifling  it  might  appear,  would  not  exalt  him  in 
the  eyes  of  his  new  sovereign,  who  has  never  required  any 
of  his  Christian  servants  to  change  their  creed. 

The  invasion  of  the  upper  provinces  by  the  army  under 
the  command  of  Ishmael,  belongs  to  the  history  of  Nubia 


* Histoire  de  la  Regeneration,  p.  28. 


MODERN  EGYPT. 


251 

rather  than  to  that  of  Egypt ; for  which  reason  we  shall  not 
enter  into  its  details  at  present  farther  than  to  state,  that 
owing  to  an  insult  inflicted  upon  one  of  the  native  chiefs, 
this  favourite  son  of  Mohammed  Ali  was  cut  off  by  a most 
miserable  death.  The  cottage  in  which  he  and  his  per- 
sonal attendants  had  taken  up  their  quarters  was  sur- 
rounded with  a mass  of  combustible  materials,  and  burnt 
to  the  ground  ; no  one  escaping  through  the  flames  except 
the  physician,  who  was  reserved  for  more  protracted  suffer- 
ing. Ibrahim,  the  conqueror  of  Derayeh,  avenged  in  some 
degree  the  murder  of  his  brother,  and  even  extended  the 
dominion  of  the  Egyptian  arms  into  districts  which  neither 
the  Persians  nor  the  Romans  had  ventured  to  penetrate. 
But  the  affairs  of  Greece*  which  began  to  occupy  the  full 
attention  of  the  Porte,-  supplied  a new  theatre  for  the  mili- 
tary talent  of  his  lieutenant,  who,  at  the  command  of  his 
father,  withdrew  his  troops  from  the  deserts  of  Dongola 
and  Kordofan  to  transport  them  to  the  more  sanguinary 
fields  of  the  Morea. 

As  it  belongs  not  to  this  narrative  to  record  even  inci- 
dentally the  events  of  the  war  to  which  we  have  just  re- 
ferred, we  shall  conclude  this  chapter  with  a brief  outline 
of  the  character  of  that  remarkable  person  who  at  present 
fills  the  viceregal  throne  of  Egypt,  and  whose  genius  seems 
destined  to  accomplish  a greater  change  on  the  condition 
of  that  country  than  has  been  effected  by  conquest  or 
revolution  since  the  days  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Perhaps  the  actions  of  this  ruler  are  the  best  expression 
of  his  views  and  feelings,  and  might  alone  be  appealed  to 
as  a proof  of  an  elevated  and  aspiring  mind,  still  clouded 
indeed  with  some  of  the  darkest  shades  of  his  original  bar- 
barism, and  not  unfrequently  impelled  by  the  force  of  pas- 
sions which  are  never  allowed  to  disturb  the  tranquillity  of 
civilized  life.  He  is  now  about  sixty  years  of  age,  rather 
short  in  stature,  with  a high  forehead  and  aquiline  nose, 
and  altogether  possessing  tin  expression  of  countenance 
which  shows  him  to  be  no  ordinary  man.  His  dress  is 
usually  very  plain  ; the  only  expense  which  he  allows  him- 
self in  matters  connected  with  his  person  being  lavished 
upon  his  arms,  some  of  which  are  studded  with  diamonds. 
Like  Buonaparte,  his  outward  appearance  seems  to  have 
changed  considerably  with  the  progress  of  his  years ; for 


252 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


although,  when  between  thirty  and  forty,  he  was  described 
by  a British  traveller  as  “of  a slender  make,  sallow  com- 
plexion, and  under  the  middle  size,”  he  is  reported  by  the 
latest  visiters  to  have  become  “ thick-set,”  and  somewhat 
full  in  the  figure. 

“ On  our  arrival  being  announced,”  says  an  author  whom 
we  have  already  quoted,  “ we  were  immediately  ushered 
into  his  presence,  and  found  him  sitting  on  the  corner  of 
the  divan,  surrounded  by  his  officers  and  men,  who  were 
standing  at  a respectful  distance.  He  received  us  sitting, 
but  in  the  most  gracious  manner,  and  placed  the  Earl  of 
Belmore  and  Mr.  Salt  upon  his  left-hand,  and  his  lordship’s 
two  sons  and  myself  at  the  top  of  the  room  on  his  right. 
The  interpreter  stood,  as  well  as  the  officers  and  soldiers, 
who  remained  in  the  room  during  the  whole  time  of  the 
visit.  He  began  the  conversation  by  welcoming  us  to  Cairo, 
and  prayed  that  God  might  preserve  us,  and  grant  us  pros- 
perity. He  then  inquired  of  the  noble  traveller  how  long 
he  had  been  from  England,  and  what  was  the  object  of  his 
journey  to  Egypt ; to  all  which  he  received  satisfactory 
answers.  His  highness  next  adverted  to  the  prospect 
before  him,  the  Nile,  the  grain-covered  fields,  the  Pyramids 
of  Djizeh,  the  bright  sun,  and  the  cloudless  sky,  and  re- 
marked, with  a certain  triumphant  humour  on  his  lip,  that 
England  offered  no  such  prospect  to  the  eye  of  the  spectator.” 

He  was  told  that  the  scenery  of  England  was  very  fine. 
“ How  can  that  be,  he  shortly  rejoined,  seeing  you  are 
steeped  in  rain  and  fog  three  quarters  of  the  year. — He 
next  turned  the  conversation  to  Mr.  Leslie’s  elegant  experi- 
ment of  freezing  water  in  the  vacuum  of  an  air-pump  ; 
which  he  had  never  seen  but  admired  prodigiously  in  de- 
scription, and  seemed  to  anticipate  with  great  satisfaction  a 
glass  of  lemonade  and  iced  water  for  himself  and  Triends, 
as  the  happiest  result  of  the  discovery.  Talking  of  his 
lordship’s  intended  voyage  up  the  Nile,  he  politely  offered 
to  render  every  possible  facility  ; cautioning  him  at  the 
same  time  to  keep  a sharp  lookout  among  the  Arabs,  who, 
he  believed,  would  not  take  any  thing  from  him  or  his  party 
by  violence,  but  would  certainly  steal  if  they  found  an  op- 
portunity of  doing  it  without  the  risk  of  detection.  He  then 
related  a number  of  anecdotes,  touching  the  petty  larcenies 
of  that  most  thievish  race ; some  of  which  were  by  no 


MODERN  EGYPT. 


253 


means  without  contrivance  or  dexterity.  But  the  one 
which  seemed  to  amuse  both  himself  and  his  friends  the 
most  was  that  of  a traveller,  who,  when  eating  his  dinner, 
laid  down  Ills  spoon  to  reach  for  a piece  of  bread,  and  by 
the  time  he  brought  back  his  hand  the  spoon  was  away ; 
the  knife  and  fork  soon  shared  the  same  fate  ; and  the  un- 
fortunate stranger  was  at  length  reduced  to  the  sad  neces- 
sity of  tearing  his  meat,  and  lifting  it  with  his  fingers  and 
thumb,  like  the  Arabs  themselves.  Many  persons  were 
near,  but  no  one  saw  the  theft  committed  ; and  all  search 
for  the  recovery  of  the  property  was  in  vain. — We  now 
took  leave  of  the  viceroy,  leaving  him  in  the  greatest  good- 
humour  ; he  said  we  might  go  every  where,  and  see  every 
thing  we  wished,  and  that  he  hoped  to  have  the  pleasure 
of  seeing  us  again.”* 

In  reference  to  the  freezing  experiment,  we  may  mention 
that  Mohammed  Ali,  very  soon  after  the  visit  now  de- 
scribed, obtained  from  England,  through  Mr.  Salt,  the 
requisite  apparatus.  The  machine  on  its  arrival  was  con- 
veyed to  his  palace,  and  some  Nile  water  was  procured  for 
the  purpose.  He  hung  over  the  whole  operation  with  in- 
tense curiosity  ; and  when,  after  several  disappointments,  a 
piece  of  real  ice  was  produced,  he  took  it  eagerly  in  his 
hand,  and  danced  round  the  room  for  joy  like  a child,  and 
then  ran  into  the  harem  to  show  it  to  his  wives. f 

No  one  has  attempted  to  conceal  that  there  is  in  the  tem- 
per of  Mohammed  Ali,  intermingled  with  many  good  quali- 
ties, a deep  tincture  of  barbarism  and  fierceness.  Impatient 
of  opposition,  and  even  of  delay,  he  occasionally  gives  him- 
self up  to  the  most  violent  bursts  of  passion  ; and  in  such 
moments  there  is  hardly  any  cruelty  which  he  will  not  per- 
petrate or  command.  For  instance,  some  time  ago  he  had 
ordered  that  the  dollar  should  pass  for  a fixed  number  of 
piasters,  and  it  was  mentioned  in  his  presence  that  the  rate 
was  not  strictly  followed.  His  highness  expressed  some 
doubt  of  the  fact,  when  the  head  interpreter  carelessly  ob- 
served that  a Jew  broker,  whom  he  named,  had  a few  days 
before  exchanged  dollars  for  him  at  the  rate  asserted. — “ Let 
him  be  hanged  immediately,”  exclaimed  the  pasha  ! The 

* Richardson’s  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  101. 

t Carne’s  Letters  from  the  East.  vol.  i.  p.  80. 

Y 


254 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


interpreter,  an  old  and  favourite  servant,  threw  himself  at  his 
sovereign’s  feet,  deprecating  his  own  folly,  and  imploring 
pardon  for  the  wretched  culprit.  But  all  intercession  was 
in  vain ; the  viceroy  said  his  orders  must  not  be  disregarded, 
and  the  unfortunate  Jew  was  instantly  led  to  his  death.* 

We  find  proofs  of  a similar  sally  at  Djidda,  where  he 
appears  to  have  used  his  own  hands  to  inflict  a punishment 
which  he  thought  inexpedient  to  remit.  Hoseyn  Aga,  the 
agent  for  the  East  India  Company,  resident  in  that  town, 
was,  says  a recent  traveller,  a remarkably  fine-looking  man, 
displaying  an  air  of  dignity  mixed  with  hauteur  ; hand- 
somely clad,  too,  though  the  heavy  folds  of  his  muslin  tur- 
ban were  studiously  drawn  over  his  right  eye  to  conceal  the 
loss  of  it, — for  Mohammed  Ali  one  day  in  a fit  of  rage 
pulled  it  out ! Yet  these  men  are  friends, — great  friends 
just  at  present,  and  will  remain  so  as  long  as  it  may  be 
convenient  and  agreeable  to  both  parties  to  consider  each 
other  in  that  light. t 

But  the  master  of  Egypt  is  not  at  all  times  so  ferocious. 
For  example,  when  Mrs.  Lushington  was  at  Alexandria, 
intelligence  was  brought  to  him  that  a small  fort  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  harbour  had  been  taken  possession  of  by  cer- 
tain Franks,  and  that  the  Turks  belonging'  to  it  had  been 
made  prisoners.  Some  consternation  prevailed  among  his 
people ; but  instead  of  being  angry  he  laughed  heartily, 
and  swearing  by  his  two  eyes, — his  favourite  oath, — that 
they  must  be  English  sailors,  he  directed  his  interpreter  to 
write  to  their  captain,  to  order  his  men  on  board  ship  again. 
Upon  inquiry  it  proved  as  the  pasha  had  anticipated  ; the 
men  had  landed,  got  drunk,  and  crowned  their  liberty  by 
seizing  on  the  fort,  and  confining  the  unfortunate  Turks, 
who,  indolently  smoking  their  pipes,  never  could  have  an- 
ticipated such  an  attack  in  time  of  profound  peace.  He 
evinced  equal  self-command,  and  still  more  magnanimity, 
when  he  first  heard  of  the  event  which  destroyed  his  infant 
navy  and  humbled  his  power.  We  allude  to  the  battle  of 
Navarino.  He  had  not 'finished  the  perusal  of  the  unwel- 
come despatches,  when  he  desired  a European  consul  to 
assure  his  countrymen  and  all  the  other  Franks  that  they 

* Narrative  of  a Journey  from  Calcutta  to  Europe,  p.  179. 

t Journey  Overland,  vol.  i.  p.  306. 


MODERN  EGYPT.  255 

should  not  be  molested,  and  that  they  might  pursue  their 
wonted  occupations  in  perfect  security. 

Among  the  ships  lying  in  the  harbour  was  the.  wreck  of 
one  of  the  pasha’s  own  vessels.  The  captain  had  com- 
mitted some  crime  which  was  represented  by  his  crew  to 
the  viceroy,  who  ordered  him  immediately  on  shore  to 
answer  his  accusers.  Knowing  his  guilt  he  pretended  sick- 
ness, till  a second  message  from  the  same  quarter  left  him 
no  alternative  ; and  unable  longer  to  evade  his  fate,  he  sent 
all  his  crew  ashore,  and  calling  to  an  old  and  faithful  ser- 
vant, the  only  person  on  board,  he  bade  him  jump  out  of 
the  port  into  the  sea  ; at  the  same  time,  having  loaded  two 
pistols,  he  fired  into  the  magazine,  and  blew  up  the  ship 
and  himself  together.  When  the  story  was  related  to  the 
pasha,  he  said,  “These  are  Frank  customs  ; this  is  dying 
like  an  Englishman  !”* 

There  is  something  characteristic  in  the  following  notice 
by  Sir  F.  Henniker,  who  remarks,  that  the  pasha  appeared 
to  him  to  have  a vulgar,  low-born  face,  but  a commanding, 
intelligent  eye.  “ He  received  us  in  the  court-yard,  seated 
on  a sofa,  and  wielding  a pipe,  dressed  like  a private  indi- 
vidual, as  Turks  of  real  consequence  generally  are,  except- 
ing on  gala  days.  The  vice-consul  and  myself  sat  down 
on  the  sofa  with  him*  Pipes  are  not  offered  except  to 
equals  ; coffee  served  up, — no  sugar,  even  though  the  pasha 
himself  has  a manufactory  of  that  article, — the  attendants 
ordered  to  -withdraw  ; no  pride,  no  affectation,  even  though 
the  pasha  is  an  upstart.  Remained  nearly  an  hour  dis- 
coursing on  English  horses,  military  force,  the  emerald 
mines  at  Cosseir,  his  son’s  victory  over  the  Wahabees,  and 
his  expected  triumphal  entry. ”f 

It  is  generally  stated,  that  since  Mohammed  Ali  has  felt 
himself  secure  in  the  pashalic  he  has  ceased  to  be  cruel. 
Seldom  now  does  he  take  away  life,  and  never  with  torture  ; 
and  if  his  subordinate  officers  were  as  well  disposed  as  him- 
self, the  people,  notwithstanding  the  oppressive  taxes, 
would  feel  their  property  more  secure.  One  instance  of 
his  prompt  justice  excited  much  astonishment ; although  a 
slower  and  more  regular  method  would  not,  it  is  probable, 
in  a nation  so  completely  disorganized,  have  produced  an 


* Narrative,  p.  191. 


+ Notes,  p.  63, 


256 


CIVIL  HISTORY  OF 


equal  effect.  A cachief  who  had  not  been  long  accustomed 
to  the  government  of  the  viceroy  punished  one  of  his  own 
servants  with  death.  He  was  called  before  Mohammed, 
who  asked  him  by  what  authority  he  had  committed  this 
outrage.  He  thought  it  enough  to  urge  in  his  defence  that 
the  man  was  his  own  servant.  True,  retorted  the  pasha, 
but  he  was  my  subject ; and,  in  the  same  breath,  passed 
sentence  that  the  culprit  should  be  immediately  beheaded, 
— an  effectual  warning  to  the  rest  of  the  grandees  present. 
This  act  of  severity  has  saved  the  lives  of  many  of  the 
Arabs,  who,  in  former  times,  were  sacrificed  by  their  Turkish 
masters  on  the  most  trifling  pretences. 

In  short,  Mohammed  is  well  spoken  of  by  most  European 
travellers,  though  in  general  they  estimate  his  character  by 
too  high  a standard, — the  principles  and  habits  of  their 
own  countries.  There  is  only  one  author  whose  impression 
was  rather  unfavourable  : — “ I sat  in  the  divan,”  says  he, 
“ with  my  eyes  fixed  on  him ; I wanted  to  examine  the 
countenance  of  a man  who  had  realized  in  our  day  one  of 
those  scenes  in  history  which,  when  we  have  perused  it, 
always  compels  us  to  lay  down  the  book  and  recover  our- 
selves. There  he  sat, — a quick  eye,  features  common,  nose 
bad,  a grizzled  beard,  looking  much  more  than  fifty,  and 
having  the  worn  complexion  of  that  period  of  life.  They 
tell  you  he  is  not  sanguinary  ; men  grow  tired  of  shedding 
blood  as  well  as  of  other  pleasures  ; but  if  the  cutting  off  a 
head  would  drop  gold  into  his  coffers,  he  would  not  be  slow 
to  give  the  signal.  His  laugh  has  nothing  in  it  of  nature  ; 
how  can  it  have  1 I hear  it  now,— a hard,  sharp  laugh, 
such  as  that  with  which  strong  heartless  men  would 
divide  booty  torn  from  the  feeble.  I leave  him  to  his  ad- 
mirers.”* 

“ In  the  usages  of  the  table,”  says  Mr.  Came,  “ he  is 
still  an  Osmanli ; knives,  forks,  and  other  useful  append- 
ages never  make  their  appearance  at  his  meals.  About 
five  years  ago  some  English  travellers  were  graciously 
received  by.  him,  and  pressingly  invited  to  dine.  But  not 
even  in  compliance  with  the  taste  of  his  guests  would  he 
depart  from  his  own  habits ; for,  wishing  to  show  a noble 
lady  particular  attention,  he  took  a large  piece  of  meat  in 


Scenes  and  Impressions,  p.  176. 


MODERN  EGYPT. 


257 


his  hand,  and  politely  placed  it  before  her.  Perfectly  dis- 
mayed at  the  compliment,  and  the  sight  of  the  savoury 
morsel  which  rested  on  her  plate,  she  turned  to  her  com- 
panion, who  was  more  used  to  oriental  manners,  and 
earnestly  asked  what  she  was  to  do.  ‘ Eat  it  to  be  sure,’ 
was  the  reply.  She  looked  at  the  pasha  ; his  fine  dark  eye 
seemed  to  rest  on  her  with  a most  kind  and  complacent 
expression  ; and  there  was  no  help  for  it  but  to  follow 
the  excellent  advice  given  her  by  her  more  experienced 
friend.”* 

That  Mohammed  Ali  is  a despot,  and  even  in  some 
respects  a barbarian,  cannot  be  denied  ; but  there  is,  not- 
withstanding, in  all  his  institutions  so  much  of  wisdom  and 
patriotism  that  he  unquestionably  deserves  to  occupy  a high 
place  among  those  adventurers  who  have  so  well  profited  by 
revolutions  as  to  place  themselves  on  a throne.  His  am- 
bition, though  dishonoured  by  the  means  which  he  has 
occasionally  found  it  necessary  to  adopt,  is,  upon  the  whole, 
of  the  right  kind,  and  has  all  along  been  directed  to  the 
promotion  of  the  national  welfare  rather  than  to  his  own 
personal  aggrandizement.  If  he  has  died  his  hands  in 
blood,  it  has  been  in  that  of  the  worst  enemies  of  Egypt  ; 
and  if  he  has  in  numerous  cases  had  recourse  to  arbitrary 
government,  his  object,  it  must  be  acknowledged,  has  ever 
been  the  security  and  improvement  of  the  distracted  country 
over  which  it  has  been  his  lot  to  preside. 

* Recollections  of  the  East,  p.  288 

y 3 


258 


ACTUAL  STATE  OF  EGYPT 


CHAPTER  VIIi. 

The  Actual  State  of  Egypt  under  the  Government  of 
Mohammed  Ali. 

Nature  of  Innovations — Members  of  Government — Household — Tenure 
of  Land — Resumption  of  it  by  the  Pasha — Condition  of  the  People — 
Army — Military  Schools — European  Arts — Canal  of  Mahmoudieh — 
Introduction  of  Cotton  Manufactures — Exportation  of  the  raw  Material 
to  England — Fear  of  Plague— Silk,  Flax,  Sugar — Monopoly  of  Vice- 
roy— Disadvantages  of  it — Caravans — Imports  and  Exports — Revenue 
and  Expenditure — Population — Copts,  Arabs,  Turks, Greeks,  Jews,  and 
Syrians  — Characteristics — Cairo  —Houses— Citadel— Joseph’s  Well, 
Joseph's  Hall -Necropolis— Tombs—  Mosques — Palace  at  Shoubra — 
Splendid  Pavilion— Comparison,  of  Egypt  before  and  under  the 
Government  of  Mohammed  Ali— Future  Prospects  under  his  Suc- 
cessor. 

In  a country  where  the  administration  of  law  depends 
almost  entirely  upon  the  character  of  an  individual,  and 
where  at  the  same  time  the  nomination  to  the  supreme 
authority  is  usually  determined  by  intrigue  or  in  the  field 
of  battle,  the  mere  form  of  government  cannot  be  of  very 
much  consequence.  But  the  sagacity  of  the  present  ruler 
of  Egypt,  who  is  aware  of  the  influence  exerted  on  the 
minds  of  men  by  custom  and  the  use  of  certain  modes  of 
speech,  has  dictated  to  him  the  expediency  of  innovating 
less  in  the  outward  structure  of  the  constitution  than  in 
those  internal  parts  whence  all  real  power  is  derived,  and 
by  means  of  which  it  is  diffused  to  the  remotest  extremity 
of  the  vast  province  of  which  he  has  assumed  the  command. 
Although  virtually  independent,  he  has  hitherto  continued 
a formal  acknowledgment  of  that  superiority  which  belongs 
to  the  head  of  the  Ottoman  empire  ; and  while  he  wields 
the  sceptre  with  as  little  restriction  as  the  most  arbitrary 
of  oriental  despots,  he  carefully  preserves  the  appearance 
of  only  sharing  with  others  the  portion  of  a delegated 
authority. 

The  administration  is  in  the  hands  of  the  following  offi- 
cers : — 1st,  The  Kiaya  Bey,  who  may  be  called  the  prime 


UNDER  MOHAMMED  ALI. 


259 


minister ; 2d,  The  Aga  of  the  Janizaries,  or  chief  of  the 
war  department ; 3d,  The  Ouali,  or  head  of  the  military 
police ; 4th,  The  Mohtesib,  or  superintendent  of  the  markets ; 
and,  5th,  The  Bash-aga,  or  master  of  the  civil  police.  In 
every  district  there  is  also  a headsman,  who  is  authorized 
to  determine  differences  by  arbitration,  and  watch  over  the 
peace  and  good  order  of  his  neighbourhood.  All  fees  have 
been  abolished,  and  competent  salaries  are  appointed ; and 
so  effectually  are  these  duties  performed  that  the  streets  of 
Cairo  are  as  safe  as  those  of  London,  except  on  occasions, 
now  almost  never  known,  when  the  military  break  loose  for 
want  of  pay,  or  to  revenge  themselves  for  some  professional 
grievance.  All  criminal  prosecutions  are  settled  by  a cadi 
or  judge,  who  is  sent  annually  from  Constantinople,  and 
assisted  by  a number  of  sheiks,  or  others  learned  in  the  law. 
A civil  process  is  stated  to  cost  four  per  cent,  of  the  value 
in  dispute  ; of  which  th'e  cadi  takes  four-fifths  to  himself, 
and  gives  one-fifth  to  the  lawyers  who  have  aided  him  in  the 
decision. 

Besides  the  public  officers  now  mentioned,  there  are 
others  attached  to  the  household  of  the  viceroy,  such  as  the 
treasurer,  the  sword-bearer,  the  inspector  of  provisions, 
the  commandant  of  the  citadel,  and  the  superintendent  of 
customs  and  excise,  who  in  Egypt  act  under  the  immediate 
direction  of  the  head  of  the  government.  There  is  also  a 
body-guard,  consisting  of  four  hundred  Mamlouks,  to  which 
may  be  added  six  hundred  gentlemen  of  the  privy  chamber, 
as  they  are  called,  or  yeomen  of  the  palace.  Including  all 
the  subordinate  functionaries  in  the  civil  and  military  depart- 
ments, the  domestic  establishment  of  the  pasha  comprehends 
not  fewer  than  fifteen  hundred  individuals. 

So  numerous  and  rapid  are  the  changes  to  which  Egypt 
has  been  subjected  under  a succession  of  dynasties,  and 
even  of  foreign  conquerors,  that  it  is  extremely  difficult  to 
ascertain  on  what  tenure  the  land  was  held,  in  the  early 
ages  of  the  monarchy,  by  the  persons  who  devoted  their 
labour  and  capital  to  its  cultivation.  We  know  that  the 
Pharaoh  who  reigned  in  the  days  of  Joseph  transferred  to 
the  crown  a large  portion  of  it,  by  supplying  to  the  famished 
peasantry  a quantity  of  corn  in  return  for  their  fields  ; and 
hence  we  may  infer,  that,  prior  to  the  date  at  which  this 


260 


ACTUAL  STATE  OF  JKGYFT 


transaction  took  place,  a distinct  property  in  the  soil  was 
recognised  by  the  Egyptian  sovereigns.  But  during  the 
long  interval  which  has  elapsed  since  the  Macedonian  con- 
quest, it  is  probable  that  the  territorial  domain  was  occupied 
upon  conditions  similar  to  those  which  were  implied  in 
the  ancient  system  of  fiefs  at  one  time  universal  through- 
out Europe, — a certain  portion  of  the  annual  produce 
being  made  payable  to  him  whose  sword,  or  whose  influ- 
ence with  the  monarch,  had  procured  to  him  the  feudal 
superiority. 

Before  the  accession  of  Mohammed  Ali,  the  representa- 
tive of  the  sultan  was  satisfied  with  a miri,  or  land-tax, 
according  to  the  quality  and  other  advantages  of  the  soil, 
and  had  even  acknowledged  in  some  of  the  occupants  a 
right  almost  equivalent  to  that  of  a permanent  owner.  The 
present  viceroy,  however,  has  taken  into  his  own  hands  the 
greater  part  of  the  territorial  possessions  ; granting,  in 
name  of  compensation,  a yearly  pension  for  life  to  the 
several  moultezims,  or  proprietors,  whom  he  has  thus  de- 
prived, but  leaving  to  them  nothing  which  they  can  bequeath 
to  their  children  or  heirs.  The  lands  which  Mohammed 
has  seized  in  the  way  now  described  belonged,  generally 
speaking,  to  the  Mamlouks,  whom  except  in  their  capacity 
of  soldiers  he  wishes  to  extirpate  ; 2dly,  To  certain  estab- 
lishments for  feeding  the  poor,  or  for  supporting  mosques, 
fountains,  public  schools,  and  other  national  charities  ; and, 
finally,  to  the  ancient  class  of  feuars  in  whose  management 
or  principles  he  could  not  be  induced  to  repose  a sufficient 
degree  of  confidence.  But  it  is  added,  that  even  the  owners 
of  those  lands  which  have  not  yet  beeli  seized  are  not 
masters  of  their  crops  ; they  cannot  dispose  of  any  part  of 
them  until  the  agents  of  government  have  taken  what  por- 
tion they  may  think  proper  at  their  own  price ; and,  in 
place  of  the  established  miri,  all  the  families  attached  to 
the  court  are  served  with  agricultural  produce  at  half  its 
value,  while  the  pasha  regulates  the  price  of  all  that  can  be 
spared  for  exportation.  Such  a system  will  fully  explain 
the  observation  of  M.  Mengin,  that  “the  traveller  sees  with 
astonishment  the  richness  of  the  harvests  contrasted  with 
the  wretched  state  of  the  villages  and  that,  “ if  it  be  true 
that  there  is  no  country  more  abundant  in  its  territorial  pro- 


UNDER  MOHAMMED  ALI.  261 

Auctions,  there  is  none  perhaps  whose  inhabitants  upon  the 
whole  are  more  miserable.”* 

As  to  the  agricultural  labourers,  or  Fellahs,  the  innovations 
of  the  pasha  have  probably  left  them  in  nearly  the  same 
state  in  which,  as  far  as  history  goes,  they  appear  always 
to  have  been,  with  the  additional  disadvantage,  if  such  it 
must  be  esteemed,  of  submitting  to  the  military  conscrip- 
tion. But  perhaps,  although  in  appearance  the  most  tyran- 
nical measure  that  Mohammed  has  enforced  in  the  progress 
of  his  regeneration,  the  establishment  of  a regular  army  is 
not  an  evil  cff  an  unmixed  nature.  Heretofore  the  sword 
has  been  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  foreigners,  originally 
slaves  of  the  most  degraded  caste,  and  afterward  the  most 
iaughty  and  insatiable  of  masters  ; while  at  present  the 
latives  are  taught  the  use  of  arms  ; are  permitted  to  rise  in 
the  service  according  to  a scale  of  merit ; and  are,  in  short, 
put  in  possession  of  means  whereby  they  may  protect  their 
own  rights  against  the  avarice  of  the  Turks  and  the  inso- 
ence  of  the  Mamlouks. 

We  have  already  stated,  on  the  authority  of  the  latest 
work  which  has  been  published  on  Egypt,  that  the  pasha 
has  formed  twelve  regiments  of  infantry,  consisting  each- 
of  five  battalions,  and  including,  when  on  the  war  estab- 
lishment, forty-eight  thousand  men.f.  We  presume  that 
he  has  hitherto  satisfied  himself  with  little  more  than  half 
that  number  of  foot-soldiers, — a large  proportion  of  whom 
are  drawn  from  the  Arab  population,  and  even  from  the  con- 
quered districts  of  Sennaar  and  Kordofan.  Planat,  who 
held  a high  office  in  the  viceroy’s  staff,  speaks  highly  of  the 
negroes  in  point  of  bodily  strength,  faithfulness,  and  sobriety, 
while  he  ascribes  all  the  difficulties  which  were  encountered 
by  the  Europeans  appointed  to  introduce  the  new  disci- 
pline to  the  apathy,  the  self-conceit,  and  religious  preju- 
dices of  the  higher  order  of  Turks.  But  so  far  as  we  con- 
sider the  condition  of  the  people  at  large,  who  are  thus 

* Histoire  de  l’Egypte  sous  le  Gouvernement  de  Mohammed  Ali,  &c. 
&c.  Par  M.  Felix  Mengin. 

t In  1826,  Planat  informs  us  that  six  regiments  were  fully  equipped, 
amounting  in  all  to  24,000.  L’arm£e  se  forma  alors  par  regimens,  de 
cinq  bataillons  ( hacun,  & 800  hommes  par  bataillon,  ce  qui  donnait  un 
effectif  de  24,000  hommes.  Les  six  regimens  requrent  leurs  nunieros 
let  eurs  drapeaux.  R£g£n6ration  de  1’Egypte,  p.  39. 


262 


ACTUAL  STATE  OF  EGYPT 


rendered  liable  to  be  called  from  their  mud  hovels  to  the 
camp,  the  improvement  in  food  and  clothing  seems  no  inade- 
quate compensation  for  the  precarious  liberty  of  which  they 
are  temporally  deprived. 

To  complete  his  arrangements,  the  pasha  has  founded 
several  military  schools,  in  which  young  persons  of  all 
classes,  especially  from  among  the  Arabs,  are  instructed  in 
mathematics,  fortification,  gunnery,  foreign  languages,  and 
in  the  principles  of  European  tactics.  An  extensive  arsenal 
is  established  in  Cairo,  where  cannon  are  cast,  muskets 
fabricated,  and  gunpowder  manufactured  in  great  abun- 
dance. The  latest  inventions  are  imported  from  France 
and  England;  the  most  expensive  apparatus  and  instru- 
ments are  purchased  ; the  mysteries  of  gas,  and  steam,  and 
lithography  are  subjects  of  familiar  study  in  the  Egyptian 
capital,  encouraged  by  the  viceroy,  and  patronised  by  his 
court. 

Mrs.  Lushington  visited  the  military  college  in  Cairo, 
where  she  found  masters  in  all  the  different  branches  of 
art  and  science  which  are  deemed  subservient  to  the  pro- 
fession of  a soldier.  “ Besides  these  professors  there  were 
other  instructers,  chiefly  Italians,  who,  in  addition  to  their 
own  language,  taught  Arabic,  Turkish,  and  French,  as  also 
botany  and  arithmetic.  Of  the  pupils  three  hundred  were 
military  conscripts,  one  hundred  and  fifty  Greek  slaves,  and 
the  rest  Turkish  boys  from  Roumelia,  and  many  Egyptians, 
who  wrere  either  Mamlouks  or  slaves  of  the  pasha.  These 
were  divided  into  classes  of  sixty  or  a hundred  each,  every 
class  under  aninstructer  and  subordinate  monitors.  Besides 
the  mathematical  students,  twenty  were  learning  Persian, 
a great  many  French  and  Italian,  and  the  whole  were  taught 
to  read  and  write  Turkish  and  Arabic.  Of  the  fourteen 
hundred  boys  of  which  the  college  consists,  five  hundred 
are  boarders,  and  the  rest  are  day-scholars ; all  appeared 
healthy,  clean,  and  well  clothed. 

“ The  munificence  of  the  pasha  allots  above  six  thousand 
dollars  a month  to  the  maintenance  of  this  seminary ; which, 
though  a small  sum  when  compared  with  what  would  be 
the  expenses  of  a similar  establishment  in  England,  is  ade- 
quate to  its  purpose  in  a country  where  the  necessaries  of 
life  are  both  cheap  and  abundant.  The  lithographic  and 
printing  presses  next  engaged  our  attention.  They  wero 


UNDER  MOHAMMED  ALI. 


263 


apparently  well  conducted,  under  the  management  of  a 
Druse,  a native  of  Mount  Lebanon,  a young  man  of  polite 
manners,  lively  and  intelligent,  and  one  of  the  many  who 
had  been  sent  by  the  pasha  to  Europe  for  education.  I saw 
printing  in  all  its  branches,  from  the  formation  of  the  letters 
to  the  completion  of  a book.  The  works  already  printed 
were,  a ‘ Turkish  History’  by  an  officer  of  th&  grand  vizier ; 
‘ Correspondence  between  the  Pasha  and  the  Porte a 
translation  in  Turkish  of  some  French  authors  on  military 
and  naval  gunnery  ; the  Persian  poem  called  Goolistan ; 
and  some  grammars.  The  presses  were  made  under  the 
superintendence  of  this  Druse,  but  the  paper  was  of  Euro- 
pean manufacture.”* 

Having  experienced  much  difficulty,  and  several  disap- 
pointments, as  long  as  he  was  obliged  to  employ  foreigners 
in  his  different  undertakings,  the  pasha  perseveres  in  the 
scheme,  which  he  adopted  some  years  ago,  of  sending 
young  men  of  talent  to  Italy,  France,  and  England,  to  study 
the  respective  arts  of  these  enlightened  countries.  Several 
of  his  pupils  have  visited  London  and  other  parts  of  Great 
Britain,  where  they  endeavoured  to  make  themselves 
acquainted  with  every  mechanical  pursuit  or  ingenious  in- 
vention that  was  likely  to  give  pleasure  to  their  sovereign, 
and  to  benefit  their  native  land.  At  the  present  time,  be- 
sides some  small  colonies  stationed  at  Genoa  and  Leghorn, 
there  are  about  forty  individuals  in  Paris,  under  the  direction 
of  Messrs.  Jomard  and  Agoub,  learning  various  branches 
of  science,  the  liberal  arts,  and  even  the  outlines  of  Euro- 
pean literature. 

It  is  sometimes  a misfortune  for  a man  to  live  in  advance 
of  his  age,  and  we  accordingly  find  that  the  pasha  is  not 
only  far  from  being  popular,  but  that  he  is  disliked  by  the 
more  influential  classes  of  his  subjects  on  account  of  his 

* Narrative  of  a Journey,  p.  171.  This  college,  we  believe,  is  at  Boulak, 
the  port  of  Cairo,  and  not  within  the  walls  of  the  city.  We  were  struck 
with  a remark  made  by  the  pasha  when  visiting  one^  of  his  military 
schools.  Addressing  the  young  officers,  whom  he  exhorted  to  redouble 
their  zeal  and  perseverance  as  the  first  difficulties  were  already  over- 
come, he  said,  “ If  I had  any  influence  in  heaven,  1 should  work  miracles 
in  your  behalf;  but  I am  nothing  more  than  a man,  and  can  only  give 
you  salaries.”  “ Si  j’avais  du  credit  dans  le  ciel,  je  ferais  pour  vous  des 
miracles ; mais  je  ne  suis  qu’un  homme,  je  ne  puis  vous  offrir  que  des 
salaires.”  Planat,  p.  181 . 


264 


ACTUAL  STATE  OF  EGYPT 


most  meritorious  exertions.  The  indulgence,  for  example, 
which  he  grants  to  religious  sects  of  every  denomination; 
the  use  of  the  vaccine  discovery  as  well  as  of  other  surgical 
practices  borrowed  from  Europe  ; and,  above  all,  the  school 
of  anatomy  recently  founded,  which  creates  a necessity  for 
human  subjects  even  in  addition  to  the  waxen  models  which 
he  has  procured  from  Italy,  are  innovations  highly  dis- 
agreeable to  the  bigoted  Mussulmans.  In  fact,  they  perceive 
that  he  is  a Turk  only  to  his  own  countrymen,  with  whom 
he  is  rigidly  strict ; while  to  all  others  he  displays  a degree 
of  liberality  to  which  they  are  disposed  to  give  the  name 
of  dishonesty  or  indifference. 

His  labours  are  somewhat  better  appreciated  when  they 
are  directed  to  the  embellishment  of  mosques,  the  decora- 
tion of  fountains  and  reservoirs,  or  to  the  erection  of  a 
colonnade  of  white  marble  in  honour  of  a patron  saint. 
But  whatever  may  be  thought  of  his  conduct  at  home,  he 
has  every  where  else  obtained  great  praise  for  his  indefati- 
gable exertions  in  opening  the  ancient  canals,  which  had 
been  closed  up  for  centuries,  and  in  digging  new  ones,  in 
order  to  promote  the  safety  as  well  as  the  extension  of 
commerce.  Among  these  is  particularly  deserving  of  notice 
the  cut  which  connects  the  harbour  of  Alexandria  with  the 
Nile,  near  Fouah, — a magnificent  work,  forty-eight  miles 
in  length,  ninety  feet  broad,  and  about  eighteen  in  depth, 
and  supplying  the  means  for  bringing  the  whole  produce 
of  the  country,  without  danger  or  interruption,  to  the  port 
of  shipment.  In  the  winter  of  1817,  we  are  told,  when  a 
scarcity  of  grain  prevailed  all  over  Europe,  vessels  flocked 
to  Egypt,  where  there  was  abundance  ; but  owing  to  the 
bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile  near  Rosetta,  and  the  tem- 
pestuous weather  along  the  coast,  none  of  it  could  be  con- 
veyed in  time  to  Alexandria.  Hence,  of  the  ships  which 
had  assembled,  above  three  hundred  in  number,  some  at 
length  went  away  in  ballast,  and  others  with  half  cargoes, — 
a circumstance  which  occasioned  not  only  a very  heavy  loss 
to  the  owners,  but  endless  disputes  among  the  agents  and 
merchants.  It  was  then  that  the  advantages  of  a navigable 
canal  were  urged  upon  the  pasha,  who  resolved  to  engage 
immediately  in  the  arduous  undertaking. 

In  pursuance  of  this  object,  all  the  labouring  classes  of 
Lower  Egypt  were  put  in  requisition,  and  a month’s  pay 


UNDER  MOHAMMED  ALI. 


265 


advanced  to  them  to  provide  necessaries.  To  each  village 
and  district  was  allotted,  as  to  the  Roman  legions  of  old, 
the  extent  of  work  which  they  were  expected  to  perform. 
The  Arabs  were  marched  down  in  multitudes,  under  their 
respective  chiefs,  along  the  line  of  the  intended  canal ; and 
it  has  been  confidently  stated,  on  good  authority,  that  the 
number  employed  at  one  time  amounted  to  upwards  of  two 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men.  In  little  more  than  six 
weeks  the  whole  excavation  w-as  completed,  and  the  mass 
of  the  people  returned  home  to  their  respective  habitations ; 
but,  in  the  autumn,  a few  thousands  were  called  upon  to  face 
parts  of  the  bank  with  masonry,  and  to  make  the  whole 
navigable  for  vessels  of  considerable  burden.  The  canal, 
named  Nahmoudieh,  was  opened  with  great  pomp  on  the 
7th  December,  1819,  and  promises  to  confer  a great  benefit 
on  the  natives  themselves  as  well  as  on  the  foreign  mer- 
chant who  sends  ships  to  their  port. 

It  has  been  stated  by  more  than  one  of  the  late  writers 
on  Egypt,  that  twenty  thousand  labourers  fell  a sacrifice  to 
the  urgency  of  the  pasha  on  this  occasion,  and  that,  as  the 
Franks  are  accused  of  having  suggested  the  improvement, 
they  share  with  his  highness  the  odium  which  attaches  to 
the  remembrance  of  so  oppressive  a servitude.  But,  making 
allowance  for  the  exaggeration  usual  in  such  cases,  it  is 
probable  that  the  loss  of  life  was  not  so  great  as  it  has  been 
represented ; and,  besides,  it  is  more  likely  to  have  fallen 
upon  the  women  and  children,  who,  as  in  the  patriarchal 
times,  follow  the  migration  of  the  males,  than  upon  the 
workmen  who  were  actually  employed  in  the  excavation. 
We  are  inclined  to  adopt  this  view  of  the  matter  from  a 
fact  stated  by  Planat  in  regard  to  the  military  conscription 
about  five  years  ago.  The  number  of  recruits  wanted  for 
the  army  was  12,000,  but  the  multitude  who  appeared  at 
the  camp,  including  all  ages  and  both  sexes,  was  found  to 
exceed  70,000,  and  who,  before  they  could  return  to  their 
dwellings,  must  have  been  subjected  to  much  suffering,  and 
to  almost  every  species  of  privation. 

The  zeal  and  energy  of  the  viceroy  have  been  rewarded 
by  a great  increase  of  trade,  and  a corresponding  rise  in  the 
value  of  raw  produce  ; but  accident  has  conferred  upon  him 
a greater  boon  than  could  have  been  derived  from  the 
wisest  arrangements.  M.  Juxnel  discovered,  one  day,  in 


266 


ACTUAL  STATE  OF  EGYPT 


the  garden  of  a Turk,  called  Mako,  a plant  of  the  cotton- 
tree,  which  he  afterward  propagated  with  so  much  skill 
and  success  as  to  have  changed,  says  Planat,  the  commerce 
and  statistics  of  Egypt.  This  important  vegetable  bears 
the  name  of  the  Frenchman  who  first  made  the  government 
acquainted  with  its  manifold  uses  as  an  article  of  domestic 
manufacture  and  of  foreign  trade.  Jumel  erected  at  Boulak, 
near  Cairo,  a superb  establishment,  equal  in  its  structure 
to  the  finest  European  manufactory,  for  spinning,  weaving, 
dying,  and  printing  of  cotton  goods.  The  latest  improve- 
ments in  machinery  were  borrowed  from  Rouen  or  Man- 
chester ; steam  is  the  principal  moving  power ; and  gas  is 
employed  for  the  purposes  of  artificial  light. 

At  Siout  Mr.  Webster  found  a cotton  manufactory  in 
full  operation.  “It  was  established,”  says  he,  “some  six 
years  ago,  and  gives  employment  to  eight  hundred  men  and 
boys,  who  earn  ten,  fifteen,  twenty,  or  thirty  paras,  and 
sometimes  three  piasters.  Little  boys  of  seven  or  eight 
were  seen  in  all  parts  of  the  process.  The  Arab  boys  are 
singularly  active  and  intelligent-looking.  They  work  with 
an  air  of  sharpness  which  is  quite  remarkable, — a sort  of 
style  and  flourish  which  shows  a full  comprehension  and 
mastery  of  what  they  are  about.  They  appear  much  quicker 
than  English  boys  of  the  same  age.  Young  girls  were 
once  tried  in  the  factory-work,  but  were  found  to  be  of  no 
service.  The  manager  and  sub-manager  accompanied  us 
round  with  great  pleasure.  Cotton  factories  are  by  no 
means  uncommon  in  Egypt.”* 

M.  Mengin  made  a remark,  which  we  have  seen  confirmed 
by  other  authors,  namely,  that  during  the  prevalence  of 
the  desert  winds,  machinery  is  very  liable  to  be  disordered 
by  the  impalpable  dust  which  then  fills  the  air,  and  is  so 
extremely  penetrating,  that,  as  the  natives  assert,  it  will 
enter  into  an  egg  through  the  pores  of  the  shell.  This 
powder  finds  its  way  into  the  wheel-work  and  finer  parts  of 
a piece  of  mechanism,  disturbing  and  sometimes  stopping 
the  movements  ; while  the  wood,  in  similar  circumstances, 
warps  or  splits,  and  the  threads,  owing  to  the  excessive  dry- 
ness of  the  climate,  are  very  apt  to  break  and  snap  asunder. 
But  notwithstanding  all  these  disadvantages,  which  per- 


* Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  131. 


UNDER  MOHAMMED  ALT. 


267 


haps  find  a full  compensation  in  the  cheap  labour  of  a coun- 
try whose  inhabitants  have  few  wants,  the  pasha  is  able  to 
compete  with  the  European  manufacturers  in  every  market 
to  which  he  is  admitted,  and  even  to  undersell  the  merchants 
of  India  in  their  own  ports.* 

It  has  happened,  fortunately  for  the  pasha,  that  this  cot- 
ton-wool is  not  the  usual  coarse  kind  hitherto  grown  in 
Egypt,  but  of  a very  superior  quality,  equal  to  the  best 
American.  In  the  year  1822,  the  crop  yielded  about 
5,600,000  lbs., — a portion  of  which,  being  sent  to  Liverpool 
on  trial,  was  sold  at  the  rate  of  a shilling  a pound.  In  1823, 
the  produce  was  so  abundant,  that  after  supplying  the 
countries  on  the  borders  of  the  Mediterranean,  it  was  cal- 
culated that  at  least  50,000  bags  might  be  exported  to 
England.  The  pasha  is  still  extending  the  culture  of  tins 
useful  plant  on  tracts  of  ground  long  neglected,  by  clearing 
out  the  old  canals,  and  digging  others  for  the  purpose  of 
irrigation  ; so  that  it  is  very  probable  the  quantity  of  cotton 
which  may  be  raised  in  Egypt  will  at  no  distant  period 
equal  the  whole  importation  from  America ; because,  as 
the  crop  is  not  exposed,  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  to  the 
frosts  and  heavy  rains  which  frequently  injure  it  in  the  less 
temperate  climate  of  the  United  States,  it  is  much  less  pre- 
carious. Besides,  this  new  source  of  supply  acquires  addi- 
tional importance  from  the  consideration  that  it  will  be 
brought  to  England  in  British  shipping,  and  will,  there- 
fore, almost  necessarily  lead  to  an  increase  of  our  export 
trade  to  Egypt. 

It  was  at  one  time  apprehended  that  fear  of  the  plague  in 
this  country  might  prove  an  obstacle  to  the  extension  of  the 
cotton-trade  with  the  dominions  of  the  pasha.  An  alarm, 
which  no  one  at  first  thought  could  pronounce  altogether 
groundless,  seized  the  magistrates  of  Liverpool,  who  forth- 
with consulted  the  physicians,  both  as  to  the  risk  of  infec- 

* While  we  write,  the  following  notice  appears  in  a Calcutta  paper, 
dated  towards  the  end  of  last  year : — “ An  Arab  ship  has  arrived  from 
the  Red  Sea,  and  brought  250  bales  of  cotton-yarn,  the  manufacture  of 
the  pasha  at  his  spinning-mills  near  Cairo.  It  is  reported  that  he  has 
sent  500  bales  to  Surat,  1000  to  Calcutta,  and  that  he  intends  next  season 
to  send  long-cloths,  maddapollans,  &c.,  having  established  power- 
looms  ! These  goods  are  at  present  admitted  at  60  per  cent,  invoice  cost, 
besides  4*  per  cent,  customs.  What  will  the  mercantile  community  say 
to  this  new  competitor!” 


268 


ACTUAL  STATE  OF  EGYPT 


tion,  and  the  proper  means  for  preventing  so  formidable 
an  evil.  But  the  experience  of  more  than  a century  proves, 
that  with  suitable  precautions  the  disease  in  question  can 
be  effectually  guarded  against,  even  in  climates  which  might 
be  imagined  to  predispose  the  human  constitution  to  its 
influence.  The  Mediterranean  States,  for  example,  have 
found  that  the  establishment  of  quarantine  protects  the 
health  of  their  inhabitants  ; while  many  intelligent  medical 
men  hold  the  opinion  that  the  atmosphere  of  Great  Britain, 
combined  with  the  improved  police  of  our  larger  towns,  is 
itself  a sufficient  antidote  to  the  malady,  which  occasionally 
carries  death  through  the  crowded,  filthy,  and  ill-ventilated 
lanes  of  the  modern  Alexandria.  The  pasha  himself  has 
undertaken  to  extirpate  the  plague  from  Egypt ; and  we 
have  no  doubt,  that  by  the  use  of  the  means  which  he  has 
been  advised  to  adopt  he  will  ultimately  succeed.  The 
rules  enforced  by  the  English  Board  of  Health  in  that  coun- 
try in  1801  had  the  effect,  in  the  first  instance,  of  causing 
its  gradual  disappearance,  and,  finally,  of  bringing  it  to  a 
total  cessation  ; and  the  whole  of  Egypt  remained  perfectly 
free  from  it  during  the  ten  succeeding  years.  At  all  events, 
a trade  with  Turkey  has  been  carried  on  with  perfect  impu- 
nity from  a very  remote  period ; comprehending  cotton- 
wool, cotton-yarn,  mohair-yarn,  and  carpets,  articles  not 
less  to  be  suspected  as  vehicles  of  contagion  than  the  com- 
modities produced  by  Mohammed  Ali.* 

Besides  cotton,  this  enterprising  monarch  has  bestowed 
a similar  attention  on  silk,  flax,  and  the  sugar-cane.  To 
these  may  be  added  indigo,  safflower,  and  henneh,  which 
are  of  great  use  in  the  various  processes  of  dying  and 
calico-printing.  In  the  valley  of  Tumulaut,  the  ancient 
Land  of  Goshen,  he  has  established  a colony  of  five  hundred 
Syrians,  for  the  purpose  of  cultivating  the  mulberry  and 
rearing  silkworms ; while  in  the  beautiful  province  of 
Fayoum  the  vine  and  the  olive  are  again  approaching  that 
perfection  which  they  once  enjoyed,  and  for  which  the 
genial  climate  of  Egypt  appears  so  well  calculated.  To- 
bacco is  likewise  cultivated  to  a great  extent ; but,  being 
weaker  than  the  American,  is  not  so  much  liked  in  Europe, 
and  is,  therefore,  chiefly  confined  to  domestic  consumption. 


* See  Quarterly  Review,  vol.  xxx.  p.  500.  Planat  and  Volney. 


UNDER  MOHAMMED  ALI. 


269 


In  a word,  it  is  impossible  to  set  limits  to  the  productive 
powers  of  that  fine  country,  stimulated  by  heat  and  moisture 
to  an  extent  which  in  some  degree  may  be  regulated  by  the 
wants  of  the  agriculturist,  and  of  which  the  soil  is  constantly 
repaired  by  the  annual  depositions  of  the  river.  Nothing 
seems  wanting  but  a more  enlightened  experience,  and  the 
enjoyment  of  greater  freedom  on  the  part  of  the  cultivator 
to  render  the  dominions  of  Mohammed  Ali  the  richest 
country  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  the  abode  of  plenty,  civili- 
zation, and  knowledge. 

But  it  must  not  be  concealed,  that  at  present  the  pasha 
is  too  much  disposed  to  interfere  with  the  private  industry 
of  his  subjects.  His  views  of  political  economy  are  narrow 
in  the  extreme.  Having  created  the  commerce  and  manu- 
factories of  Egypt,  he  regards  the  whole  as  his  own  prop- 
erty, or  at  least  so  much  under  his  control  that  no  one  is 
permitted  to  think  for  himself,  to  fix  his  price,  or  to  choose 
his  market.  His  excise  officers  rival  in  activity  the  agents 
of  the  oldest  European  nation ; and  hence  we  are  assured, 
that  if  a peasant  sows  a little  cotton,  and  his  wife  spins  it 
into  a garment,  it  is  liable  to  seizure,  unless  it  be  stamped 
with  the  viceroy’s  mark  as  a proof  of  its  having  paid  duty. 
We  are  further  told,  that  he  furnishes  the  shoemaker  with 
leather,  who  cuts  it  and  makes  it  into  shoes,  and  when  they 
are  finished  carries  them  to  the  agent  of  the  pasha,  who 
pays  him  so  much  a day  for  his  labour.  The  shoes  are 
then  deposited  in  a general  store,  out  of  which  they  are 
sold  to  the  public.  The  same  thing  is  done  in  regard  to 
the  cloth  manufactures.  He  provides  the  weaver  with  the 
yarn,  who,  when  he  has  completed  his  web  takes  it  to  the 
viceroy’s  overseer,  who  remunerates  him  at  a certain  Tate 
for  his  work ; the  stuff  is  then  lodged  in  the  government 
warehouse,  where  it  is  either  sold  for  domestic  use,  or 
exported  by  foreign  merchants,  at  a considerable  profit  to 
the  vigilant  pasha. 

The  same  principle  applies  to  the  largest  establishments. 
Every  landholder  and  manufacturer  is  obliged  to  convey  the 
produce  of  his  labour  to  some  central  depot,  where  it  is 
purchased  by  the  agents  of  government  at  fixed  prices  ; and 
all  articles  must  be  marked,  otherwise  they  cannot  be  legally 
sold.  Even  in  the  speculations  of  foreign  trade  the  pasha 
claims  the  right  of  taking  a share  with  the  merchants,  so 


270 


ACTUAL  STATE  OP  EGYPT 


far  at  least  as  to  advance  funds  and  enjoy  a portion  of  the' 
profit.  But  should  the  adventure  turn  out  unfavourably, 
he  does  not  think  himself  bound  to  bear  any  part  of  the 
loss ; confining  his  generosity  on  such  occasions  to  an 
ample  allowance  of  time  for  reimbursing  the  stock  which 
he  may  have  contributed. 

Hence,  it  has  been  alleged  that  his  countenance  has  in 
many  cases  proved  a positive  disadvantage ; because  he  has 
induced  mercantile  houses  into  speculations  in  which  they 
would  not  have  voluntarily  engaged,  and  involved  them  in 
difficulties  from  which  some  who  possessed  but  a small 
capital  have  never  recovered.  It  is  in  the  Indian  trade 
chiefly  that  these  disasters  have  occurred;  sufficient  atten- 
tion not  having  been  paid  to  the  length  of  the  voyage,  the 
slowness  of  the  returns,  and,  above  all,  the  frequent  gluts  to 
which  those  distant  markets  are  liable.  But  so  desirous  is 
Mohammed  of  establishing  an  intercourse  with  the  East, 
that  there  are  no  expedients  within  the  range  of  human 
means  which  he  will  not  employ  in  order  to  realize  his  pur- 
pose. The  recovery  of  the  trade  which  was  withdrawn 
from  Egypt  by  the  barbarism  of  its  government,  as  well  as 
by  the  improvements  in  navigation  which  crowned  the 
efforts  of  the  European  powers  in  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  is  a favourite  object  with  the  politicians  of 
Cairo,  and  engages  deeply  the  attention  of  their  chief.  He 
can  already  supply  the  states  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean with  wax,  hides,  coffee,  myrrh,  frankincense,  coccu- 
lus  indicus,  asafoetida,  ivory,  rhinoceros-horn,  tortoise-shell, 
sal  ammoniac,  senna,  tamarinds,  ostrich- feathers,  incense, 
balsam  of  Mecca,  gum-arabic,  gum-copal,  benzoin,  Soco- 
trine  aloes,  coloquintida,  gum-ammoniac,  galbanum,  sagape- 
num,  opoponax,  spikenard,  sulphur,  musk,  and  gold-dust. 

The  intercourse  by  land  with  the  countries  towards  the 
south  and  west  is  carried  on  by  caravans.  Those  from 
Sennaar  and  Darfur  arrive  in  September  or  October,  and 
depart  when  they  have  sold  their  goods  and  completed  their 
purchases.  The  sacred  convoy  of  pilgrims  bound  to  Mecca 
reaches  Egypt  about  the  Ramadan,  or  general  fast,  and  sets 
off  immediately  after  Beiram,  the  great  Mohammedan  feast, 
that  it  may  enter  the  holy  city  before  the  month  of  the  fes- 
tival has  expired.  Caravans  from  Mount  Sinai  appear  in 
the  spring,  bringing  dates  and  charcoal ; similar  commodi- 


UNDER  MOHAMMED  ALI. 


271 


ties  are  sent  from  the  oases  on  the  backs  of  camels  ; the 
same  mode  of  conveyance  being  still  used  to  transport  the 
cargoes  of  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Hindostan  from  the  Red  Sea 
to  the  capital. 

The  caravans  from  Abyssinia  travel  northward  through 
the  desert,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Nile,  as  far  as  Esneh. 
They  bring  ivory  and  ostrich-feathers  ; but  their  principal 
trade  consists  in  gum  and  in  slaves  of  both  sexes,  Cairo 
being  the  ultimate  destination  of  the  latter,  the  place  where 
the  sales  are  made.  They  carry  home  Venetian  glass  manu- 
factures, woollen  dresses,  cotton  and  linen  stuffs,  blue 
shawls,  and  some  other  articles  which  they  purchase  at 
Siout  and  Kenneh.  The  Ababde  and  Bicharis  tribes  also 
come  to  Esneh  for  metals,  utensils,  and  such  grain  as  they 
require.  They  sell  slaves,  camels,  and  gum,  which  they 
gather  in  their  deserts,  as  well  as  the  charcoal  which  they 
make  from  the  acacia  trees.  But  the  most  valuable  com- 
modity that  they  bring  is  senna,  which  they  collect  in  the 
mountains  between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea,  where  it 
grows  without  culture. 

The  trade  to  Cossier,  on  the  shores  of  that  gulf,  is  only 
a feeble  remnant  of  that  by  which  Egypt  was  once  enriched. 
The  exports  are  wheat,  barley,  beans,  lentils,  sugar,  car- 
thamon  flowers,  oil  of  lettuce,  and  butter.  The  importa- 
tions are  coflfee,  cotton  cloth,  Indian  muslins,  English  silks, 
spices,  incense,  and  Cashmere  shawls.  This  branch  of 
commerce  is  conducted  by  persons  going  on  their  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca. 

The  principal  imports  from  the  nations  of  Europe  may  be 
reckoned  as  follows  : — The  French  cloths  called  mahouts 
and  londrins,  silks,  scarlet  caps,  gold-lace,  blotting-paper, 
glass,  earthenware,  hardware,  watches,  and  many  inferior 
objects  from  Marseilles  ; every  variety  of  cotton  goods,  su- 
perfine broadcloths,  lead,  tin,  iron,  steel,  vitriol,  gun-barrels, 
firearms,  and  watches,  from  England  ; similar  articles  from 
Germany  and  Italy,  especially  the  scarlet  bonnets  or  scull- 
caps  which  are  indispensable  to  the  Turks.  Such  goods 
brought  directly  from  the  place  of  manufacture  pay  an  im- 
post duty  of  three  per  cent. ; while  Turkish  commodities 
are  charged  five  per  cent,  at  Alexandria,  and  four  per  cent, 
at  Boulak.  For  goods  brought  by  land  from  the  interior 
nine  per  cent,  is  exacted  at  one  payment.  The  export  duty 


272 


ACTUAL  STATE  OF  EGYFT 


is  three  per  cent,  to  Europe,  and  five  per  cent,  to  Turkey  on 
either  side  of  the  Hellespont.  Cargoes  sent  by  the  Red 
Sea  pay  ten  per  cent,  each  way,  with  certain  exceptions  too 
minute  to  be  specified  on  the  present  occasion.  The  fullest 
details,  with  ample  lists  of  exports  and  imports,  are  given  by 
M.  Mengin,  in  the  work  already  so  often  referred  to,  wrhere 
the  mercantile  reader  will  find  much  to  gratify  his  curiosity 
in  regard  to  the  commercial  system  pursued  by  Moham- 
med Ali. 

The  revenue  of  Egypt  has  been  estimated  at  2,249,379 L, 
— arising  from  the  miri , or  land-tax  ; the  customs  ; the  re- 
sumed lands,  amounting  to  nearly  all  the  cultivable  soil ; the 
conquered  territories,  Darfur,  Sennaar,  Nubia,  and  a large 
part  of  Arabia ; the  monopoly  of  nearly  all  the  Egyptian 
commerce  ; and,  finally,  an  excise  on  manufactures,  raw 
produce,  and  provisions.  The  annual  expenditure  is  calcu- 
lated at  l,757,840Z.,of  which  more  than  one-half  is  required 
for  the  army,  including  the  erection  of  barracks  and  the 
supply  of  arms.  About  90,000Z.  is  remitted  to  Constanti- 
nople in  name  of  tribute  ; 14,000Z.  is  devoted  to  the  sup- 
port of  the  church  and  the  law ; an  equal  sum  is  ex- 
pended on  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca ; and  nearly  200,000Z. 
on  the  pasha’s  household,  his  guards,  and  his  yeomen  of 
the  palace. 

In  former  times  the  revenue  passed  through  the  hands  of 
the  beys,  who,  after  charging  it  with  the  expenses  of  govern- 
ment, were  understood  to  remit  the  surplus  to  Constantino- 
ple. But  the  different  agents  and  collectors  managed  so 
adroitly  that  the  grand  signior  very  seldom  touched  any 
portion  of  the  taxes  ; on  the  contrary,  he  was  often  called 
upon  to  pay  for  the  repairs  of  buildings  and  canals  which 
were  never  executed.  It  is  generally  believed  that  the 
Mamlouks  drew  from  Egypt,  in  the  shape  of  public  and 
private  income,  about  a million  and  a half  sterling.  When 
the  French  were  in  possession  of  the  country  the  imports 
varied  from  year  to  year  according  to  the  state  of  the  war. 
General  Reynier  valued  their  average  amount  at  about  nine 
hundred  thousand  pounds  sterling,  or  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  millions  of  francs.* 

It  has  not  been  found  an  easy  task  to  ascertain  the  popula- 


* Malte  Bran,  vol.  iy.  p.  100. 


UNDER  MOHAMMED  ALT. 


273 


tion  of  modem  Egypt.  M.  Sylvestre  de  Sacy,  Men  gin,  and 
others,  have  supplied  certain  facts,  from  which  we  may 
infer  that  it  amounts  to  about  two  millions  and  a half ; but 
it  remains  doubtful  whether  we  ought  to  include  in  that 
number  the  Arabs  who  occupy  the  deserts  between  the  Nile 
and  the  Red  Sea,  or  to  restrict  it  to  the  inhabitants  of  towns, 
and  to  such  of  the  peasantry  as  are  made  subjects  of  taxa- 
tion. The  last  of  the  authors  just  named,  who  professes 
to  have  paid  great  attention  to  this  article  of  Egyptian  sta- 
tistics, reckons  in  Cairo  eight  persons  to  a house,  while  in 
the  provinces  he  assigns  only  four  individuals  to  every 
family.  The  amount  is  as  follows  : — 


Houses.  Inhabitants. 

In  Cairo. 25,000  200,000 

In  the  provincial  towns  of  Alexandria,  Ro- 
setta, Damietta,  Old  Cairo,  and  Boulak  14,532  58,128 

In  fourteen  provinces,  containing  3475  vil- 
lages  504,168  2,256,272 


603,700  2,514,400 

Compared  with  the  pompous  narratives  of  the  ancient 
historians,  the  present  population  of  the  great  valley  of  the 
Nile  sinks  into  insignificance.  Before  the  Persian  conquest 
the  inhabitants,  including  all  classes  who  acknowledged  the 
authority  of  the  Pharaohs,  were  estimated  at  seven  millions, 
—-a  number  which,  if  we  consider  the  extreme  productive- 
ness of  the  country,  yielding  in  many  parts  two  crops  every 
year,  will  not  be  pronounced  altogether  improbable.  Be- 
sides, we  are  satisfied  that  the  Libyan  Desert  now  covers  a 
great  breadth  of  soil  which  was  at  one  time  under  crop,  and 
which,  even  in  our  own  days,  is  not  quite  beyond  the  reach 
of  irrigation  by  means  of  canals  drawn  from  the  higher  sec- 
tions of  the  Nile, — an  expedient  not  unlikely  to  suggest 
itself  to  that  energetic  governor,  who  has  already  made  an 
extensive  cut  near  Elephantine  in  order  to  avoid  the  disad- 
vantages of  the  Cataracts. 

The  people  of  Egypt  may  be  divided  into  Copts,  Arabs, 
Turks,  Greeks,  Jews,  and  Syrians.  The  first  are  the  most 
ancient,  and  bear,  as  Malte  Bran  observes,  the  same  rela- 
tion to  the  Arabs  that  the  Gauls  did  to  the  Franks  under  the 
first  race  of  the  French  kings.  But  the  victors  and  the 
vanquished  have  not,  as  in  the  latter  case,  been  amalgamated 


274 


ACTUAL  STATE  OF  EGYPT 


into  one  national  body.  The  followers  of  Mohammed,  in 
their  fierce  intolerance,  reduced  the  unhappy  Greeks  and 
Egyptians  to  a state  of  painful  degradation  ; forcing  them 
to  live  apart  from  their  proud  masters,  and  to  earn  a liveli- 
hood by  constant  labour.  They  did  not,  however,  peremp- 
torily insist  on  the  alternative  of  conversion  or  utter  exter- 
mination, as  the  Romish  Christians  did  with  the  Arabian 
Mussulmans  in  Spain ; while  the  talent  possessed  by  the 
Copts  for  writing  and  keeping  accounts  recommended  them 
to  their  conquerors,  and  at  the  same  time  supplied  the 
means  of  perpetuating  their  own  race.  The  Arab,  who 
knew  no  art  but  that  of  war,  saw  that  he  had  an  interest  in 
preserving  them ; and  hence  we  find,  that  after  all  the  con- 
tumely and  oppression  they  have  undergone,  their  number 
amounts  to  about  two  hundred  thousand.  They  are  seen 
in  all  parts  of  the  country  from  Alexandria  to  the  Cataracts  ; 
but  their  principal  residence  is  in  the  Said,  where  they  oc- 
casionally constitute  almost  the  exclusive  inhabitants  of 
whole  villages. 

Egypt  has  been  so  frequently  invaded,  overrun,  and  colo- 
nized, that  there  no  longer  exists  a pure  race  among  its 
inhabitants.  The  Copts  are  usually  regarded  as  the  de- 
scendants of  the  true  Egyptians,  the  subjects  of  Amenophis 
and  Sesostris.  Yolney  remarks,  that  “ both  history  and 
tradition  attest  their  descent  from  the  people  who  were 
conquered  by  the  Arabs, — that  is,  from  that  mixture  of 
Egyptians,  Persians,  and,  above  all,  of  Greeks,  who  under 
the  Ptolemies  and  Constantines  were  so  long  in  possession 
of  Egypt.”  “ This,”  he  adds,  “ will  be.  rendered  still 
more  probable,  if  we  consider  the  distinguishing  features  of 
this  race  of  people  : we  shall  find  them  all  characterized  by 
a sort  of  yellowish  dusky  complexion,  which  is  neither 
Grecian  nor  Arabian  : they  have  all  a puffed  visage,  swollen 
eyes,  flat  noses,  and  thick  lips ; — in  short,  the  exact  coun- 
tenance of  a mulatto.  I was  at  first  tempted  to  attribute  this 
to  the  climate  ; but  when  I visited  the  Sphinx,  I could  not 
help  thinking  the  figure  of  that  monster  furnished  the  true 
solution  of  the  enigma,  observing  its  features  to  be  precisely 
those  of  a negro.”* 

Those  writers  who  have  gone  in  search  of  the  etymological 


* Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  79. 


UNDER  MOHAMMED  ALI. 


275 


extraction  of  the  name  have,  as  usual,  arrived  at  very 
different  results.  Perhaps  the  opinion  of  Herbelot  presents 
the  greatest  show  of  reason,  which  identifies  it  with  the 
word  Kypt  or  Kept,  a term  which  is  employed  even  by  the 
modem  Copts  as  the  designation  of  their  country.  In 
remote  times  Mgyptius  was  also  written  Mgoptios , in  both 
of  which  forms  the  first  syllable  is  an  article.  Homer,  too, 
seems  to  have  given  the  name  of  -Egyptos  to  the  Nile  ; and 
according  to  Herodotus,  Thebes,  the  ancient  capital,  was 
called  -Egyptus.  If  we  remove  the  article  and  the  Greek 
termination  from -Egoptios, — the  remaining  root,  Gopt,  will 
give  the  appellation  by  w'hich  the  old  possessors  of  Egypt 
are  known  to  the  nations  of  modem  Europe.  * 

The  Coptic  language,  which  is  fully  ascertained  to  have 
been  the  tongue  of  the  people  at  large  under  the  Pharaonic 
dynasty,  exhibits  some  affinity  to  the  Hebrew  and  Ethiopia, 
but  is  now  greatly  mixed  with  Greek  and  Arabic  terms. 
Several  dialects  have  been  detected,  according  to  the  geo- 
graphical situation  of  the  tribes  who  continue  to  speak  it, 
whether  in  the  Delta  or  the  Said.  Its  general  character, 
we  are  told,  consists  in  the  shortness  of  the  words,  in  the 
simplicity  of  its  grammatical  modifications,  and  in  the  cir- 
cumstance of  expressing  genders  and  cases  by  prefixed  syl- 
lables, and  not  by  terminations,  like  the  languages  of 
Greece  and  Roine.f 

The  religion  of  the  Copts  is  that  form  of  Christianity 
which  was  derived  from  the  sect  of  the  Eutychians,  a body 
of  heretics  who  sprang  up  in  the  Greek  or  Eastern  church. 
Their  head  is  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  who,  they  main- 
tain, sits  in  the  seat  of  St.  Mark  the  Evangelist ; to  whom 
they  ascribe  their  conversion,  and  whose  relics  they  were 
wont  to  exhibit.  This  dignitary  may  also  be  regarded  as 
the  superior  of  the  Abyssinian  Christians,  for  he  always 
appoints  the  Abuna,  who  is  the  highest  ecclesiastical  func- 
tionary among  that  people.  The  patriarch,  though  himself 
elected  by  the  clergy,  exercises  an  almost  unlimited  power, 
and  is  every  where  obeyed  with  the  most  profound  respect. 

* D’Herbelot,  Bib.  Orient,  mots  Kebt,  Kibt ; Malte  Brun,  iv.  p.  106  ; 
Kircber’s  Prodromus  Koptus,  p.  293  ; Herod.  Euterpe. 

t Quatremdre,  Recherches  sur  la  Litterature  Egyptienne ; Vater  in 
the  Mithridates  of  Adelung  ; Zoega  de  Orig.  et  Usu  Obeliscorum,  sect, 
iv  e.  2. 


276 


ACTUAL  STATE  OF  EGYPT 


The  officiating  ministers  are  maintained  by  the  bounty  of 
their  flocks  ; but  it  should  seem,  that  as  their  acquirements 
are  not  expected  to  be  of  a very  high  order,  the  process  of 
training  is  neither  tedious  nor  expensive.  The  rite  of  or- 
dination proceeds  on  a principle  similar  to  that  of  the  mar- 
riage-ceremony among  the  ancient  Romans.  The  candi- 
date is  seized  by  his  friends  among  the  priests,  and  carried 
almost  by  force  to  the  patriarch,  who  persists,  notwith- 
standing all  his  pleas  of  unworthiness,  to  pronounce  over 
him  the  usual  benediction.  No  person  can  be  ordained 
who  is  unmarried,  nor  when  he  has  been  ordained  can  he 
marry  a second  time.  The  monks,  on  being  admitted  into 
their  order,  are  clad  in  a winding-sheet,  and  have  the  fu- 
neral-service performed,  to  indicate  that  they  are  now  dead 
to  the  world.  They  are  bound  to  maintain  a strict  celi- 
bacy, as  from  among  them  the  bishops  are  uniformly 
elected, — a strange  contrast  in  the  qualifications  required 
in  the  different  ranks  of  the  priesthood.  The  Copts  prac- 
tise the  Jewish  rite  of  circumcision,  as  well  as  auricular 
confession,  and  other  ceremonies  common  to  the  Eastern 
church  and  to  that  of  the  West.  At  Cairo,  indeed,  there 
are  about  5000  of  them  who  have  conformed  to  the  Romish 
communion,  and  are  receiving  a suitable  education  under 
the  eyes  of  certain  members  of  the  College  for  Propagating 
the  Faith  in  Foreign  Parts. 

Although  this  people  are  generally  regarded  as  the  de- 
scendants of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  mingled  with  the  Per- 
sians left  by  Cambyses,  and  with  the  Greeks  who  followed 
the  standard  of  Alexander,  they  are  described  by  travellers 
as  having  a darker  complexion  than  the  Arabs,  flat  fore- 
heads, and  hair  partaking  of  the  woolly  character.  They 
have  also  large  eyes,  raised  at  the  angles,  high  cheek-bones, 
short  though  not  flat  noses,  wide  mouths,  and  thick  lips. 
Like  all  classes  of  men  who  have  been  long  degraded,  they 
are  remarkable  for  cunning  and  duplicity,  removed  at  once 
from  the  pride  of  the  Turk  and  the  bluntness  of  the  Arab ; 
being  an  uncouth  and  grovelling  race,  and  farther  distant 
from  civilization  and  the  softened  habits  of  society  than  any 
of  their  fellow-citizens. 

The  physiognomical  description  now  given  is  supplied 
by  Malte  Brun,  which  differs  not  greatly  from  that  of  Vol- 
ney.  Dr.  Richardson,  on  the  other  hand,  observes,  that 


UNDER  MOHAMMED  ALI. 


277 


neither  in  their  features  nor  in  their  complexion  have  the 
Copts  the  smallest  resemblance  to  the  figures  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians  represented  in  the  tombs  at  Thebes,  or  in  any 
other  part  of  the  country ; and  he  accordingly  supposes 
that  they  are  a mixed  race,  bearing  in  their  physiognomy 
the  marks  of  an  alliance  to  the  great  Circassian  family,  and 
obviously  distinguished  from  the  children  of  Mizraim,  the 
aboriginal  Egyptians.  The  Nubians,  on  the  contrary,  resi- 
dent at  Elephantine,  are  described  by  him  as  perfectly 
black,  but  without  possessing  the  least  of  the  negro  feature  ; 
the  lips  small,  the  nose  aquiline  ; the  expression  of  the 
countenance  sweet  and  animated,  and  bearing  a strong  re- 
semblance to  that  which  is  generally  found  portrayed  in  the 
temples  and  tombs  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  He  also 
noticed  several  families  of  a third,  race,  differing  both  in 
complexion  and  feature  from  the  inhabitants  of  Es  Souan 
and  of  Nubia.  Their  hue  was  more  of  a bronze  or  red- 
dish brown,  resembling  mahogany  ; approaching  nearer, 
both  in  feature  and  in  complexion,  to  that  which  is  called 
the  head  of  the  young  Meinnon,  and  to  the  figures  in  the 
tomb  at  Eeban  el  Melouk,  than  any  of  the  human  race  that 
ever  fell  under  his  observation.  They  are  as  different,  he 
subjoins,  from  the  Copt  in  Egypt,  both  in  hue  and  feature, 
as  a Hindoo  is  from  a Frenchman.* 

Hence  it  has  been  concluded,  with  considerable  proba- 
bility, that  the  ancient  Egyptians  were,  as  regards  colour* 
blacks,  although  essentially  distinguished  in  their  physiog- 
nomy from  the  negro.  The  inhabitants  of  modern  Egypt 
have  by  other  authors  been  rated  as  follows  : — 


Copts 160,000 

Arab  Fellahs 2,250,000 

Bedouin  Arabs 150,000 

Arabian  Greeks 25,000 

Jews- 20.000 

Syrians 20,000 

Armenians 10,000 

Turks  and  Albanians 20,000 

Franks  or  Levantines 4000 

Mamlouks 500 

Ethiopians,  &c. 7,5000t 


The  Arabs  may  be  divided  into  three  classes  ; first,  the 

* Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  00.  361. 

A a 


t Modem  Traveller. 


278 


ACTUAL  STATE  OF  EGYPT 


wild  independent  Bedouins  who  occupy  the  desert ; then 
the  pastoral  tribes  who  feed  their  flocks  on  the  borders  of 
Egypt  and  occasionally  enter  the  cultivated  districts  ; and, 
lastly,  the  peasants  or  Fellahs,  who  devote  themselves  to 
agriculture  and  the  arts,  and  are  the  principal  inhabitants 
of  the  villages  both  in  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt.  This 
people  are  distinguished  by  a lively  and  expressive  physiog- 
nomy, small  sparkling  eyes,  short  pointed  beards,  and  a 
general  angularity  of  form  : their  lips,  being  usually  open, 
show  their  teeth  ; their  arms  are  extremely  muscular  ; the 
whole  body,  in  short,  is  more  remarkable  for  agility  than 
for  beauty,  and  more  nervous  than  handsome.  The  tented 
Arab,  hovering  with  his  flocks  along  the  borders  of  the 
fertile  valley  of  the  Nile,  is  the  same  in  character,  manners, 
and  customs  as  he  has  been  since  the  days  of  the  patri- 
archs ; regarding  with  disdain  and  proud  independence  all 
other  classes  of  mankind,  but  more  particularly  those  of  his 
own  ^nation  who  in  his  eyes  have  degraded  themselves  by 
taking  up  their  abodes  in  fixed  habitations,  and  Vvhom  he 
calls,  in  contempt,  the  Arab  of  the  Walls. 

The  Turks  have  graver  features  and  sleeker  forms,  fine 
eyes,  but  overshaded  so  much  as  to  have  little  expression ; 
large  noses,  handsome  mouths,  good  lips,  long  tufted  beards, 
lighter  complexions,  short  necks,  a grave  and  indolent 
habit  of  body  ; and  in  every  thing  an  air  of  weight  which 
ftiev  associate  with  the  idea  of  nobleness. 

The  Greeks,  who  must  now  be  classed  as  foreigners, 
present  the  regular  features,  the  delicacy  and  the  versatility 
of  their  ancestors  ; they  are  charged  with  a certain  degree 
of  sharpness  and  roguery  in  their  mercantile  transactions, 
qualities  for  which  they  are  indebted,  perhaps,  to  the  op- 
pressive domination  of  their  Moslem  conquerors.  We 
are  told  that  there  are  about  five  thousand  descendants  of 
the  ancient  Greek  colonists,  who  form  quite  a distinct  race 
from  the  modern  Greeks.  They  have  lost  their  original 
tongue,  and  speak  a kind  of  Arabic  ; most  of  them  are  mari- 
ners, but  in  general  they  pursue  the  inferior  and  handi- 
craft trades. 

The  Jews  have  the  same  physiognomy  as  in  Europe, 
and  are  here,  as  well  as  every  where  else,  devoted  to  the 
pursuits  of  commerce.  Despised  and  buffeted,  without 
being  actually  expelled,  they  compete  wTith  the  Copts  in 


UNDER  MOHAMMED  ALI. 


*279 


the  large  towns  for  situations  in  the  customs,  and  for  the 
management  of  property  belonging. to  the  rich.  M.  Mengin 
reckons' that  there  are  about  four  thousand  of  this  singular 
people  resident  in  the  dominions  of  Mohammed  Ali,  three 
thousand  of  whom  inhabit  a part  of  Cairo  which  bears  the 
distinction  of  their  name.  The  streets  are  so  narrow  as 
to  be  almost  impassable  ; the  houses  are  dark,  crowded 
together,  filthy,  and  so  infectious,  that  when  the  plague 
breaks  out,  the  first  inquiry  is,  if  it  has  appeared  in  the 
Jews’  Quarter.*- 

There  are  about  two  thousand  Arabians  who  reside  prin- 
cipally in  the  capital,  where  they  exercise  every  kind  of 
trade,  and  are  much  concerned  in  money  transactions  with 
the  government.  The  Greek  Christians  of  Syria  may  be 
estimated  at  three  thousand  in  Cairo,  and  one  thousand  in 
the  other  cities  of  Egypt..  They  were  formerly  the  whole- 
sale merchants  who  supplied  the  land  proprietors  and  others 
with  various  kinds  of  articles,  and  were  in  general  wealthy  ; 
but  the  monopoly  of  the  viceroy  has  very  considerably  les- 
sened their  business  and  diminished  their  funds. 

The  spirit  of  improvement  which  distinguishes  the  reign 
of  Mohammed  has  produced  less  change  on  the  external 
appearance  of  Cairo  than  on  the  temper  and  views  of  its 
inhabitants.  We  have  elsewhere  stated  that  this  celebrated 
city  was  founded  in  the  tenth  century  by  the  first  caliph  t)f  the 
Fatimite  dynasty,  and  that  the  famous  Saladin,  about  two 
hundred  years  afterward,  built  the  ramparts  with  which 
it  is  surrounded,  extending  more  than  eighteen  thousand 
yards  in  length.  In  ascending  the  Nile  the  traveller  arrives 
first  at  Boulak,  the  port  of  the  capital,  where  the  vessels  are 
moored  that  come  from  the  coast.  Farther  south  is  Old 
Cairo,  at  which  there  is  a harbour  for  the  reception  of  the 
traders  that  descend  from  Upper  Egypt.  Between  these 
two  ancient  towns  is  Cairo,  properly  so  called,  removed 
from  the  river  about  a mile  and  a half,  and  stretching  towards 
the  mountains  of  Mokattam  on  the  east, — a distance  of  not 
less  than  three  miles.  It  is  encircled  with  a stone  wall, 
surmounted  by  fine  battlements,  and  fortified  with  lofty 
towers  at  every  hundred  paces.  There  are  three  or  four 


* Mengin,  Histoire  de  l’Egypte;  Malte  Brun  vol.  iv;  Malus,  Me- 
moire  sur  l’Egypte;  Denon,  tom.  i.  p.  88;  Hasselquist;  Voyage,  p.  68. 


280 


ACTUAL  STATE  OF  EGYPT 


beautiful  gates  built  by  the  Mamlouks,  and  uniting  a simple 
style  of  architecture  with  an  air  of  grandeur  and  magnifi- 
cence. 

But  in  this  vast  metropolis  we  find  only  one  street,  nar- 
row and  unpaved.  The  houses,  like  all  others  in  Egypt, 
are  badly  built  of  earth  or  indifferent  bricks,  and  are  only 
distinguished  by  being  two  or  three  stories  high.  Lighted 
by  windows  looking  into  back-courts  or  quadrangles,  they 
appear  from  the  streets  like  so  many  prisons,  though  the 
general  aspect  is  a little  relieved  by  a number  of  large 
squares  and  many  fine  mosques.  That  of  Sultan  Hassan, 
built  at  the  bottom  of  the  mountain  on  which  the  citadel  is 
placed,  is  in  the  form  of  a parallelogram,  and  of  great  ex- 
tent; a deep  frieze  goes  all  the ’way  round  the  top  of  the 
wall,  adorned  with  sculptures  which  we  call  Gothic,  but 
which  were  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Arabians  who 
invaded  Spain. 

Cairo  is  traversed  by  a canal  which  issues  from  the  Nile 
a little  below  the  old  town,  and  having  passed  through  im- 
mense and  innumerable  heaps  of  rubbish,  enters  the  modern 
capital  on  the  south  side,  goes  out  at  the  north,  and  wind- 
ing round  the  wall  makes  a second  entrance  on  the  west, 
and  terminates  in  the  Birket-el-Esbequier.  The  outline  of 
the  city  is  nearly  that  of  a quadrant,  being  square  towards 
the  north  and  east  and  circular  towards  the  south  and  west. 
This  artificial  river  is  of  the  greatest  consequence  to  the 
inhabitants  ; for,  besides  furnishing  them  while  the  inunda- 
tion continues  with  an  abundant  supply  of  water  for  all  the 
purposes  of  domestic  life,  it  affords  the  means  of  replenish- 
ing a variety  of  small  lakes,  both  inside  and  outside  the 
walls,  on  which  they  ply  their  pleasure-boats,  and  enjoy  a 
variety  of  other  recreations  suited  to  their  indolent  luxury 
or  to  the  softness  of  their  delicious  climate.  On  the  borders 
of  these,  especially  within  the  town,  may  be  seen  in  an 
evening  fireworks  pouring  their  light  into  the  air,  dancing- 
dogs,  dancing-monkeys,  dancing-girls,  and  all  fhe  people 
making  merry  and  rejoicing,  as  in  the  days  of  old  when  the 
Nile  had  attained  its  due  elevation,  and  promised  to  bless 
their  fields  with  an  ample  increase.  In  one  of  these  sheets 
of  water  is  observed  the  lotus, — that  mysterious  plant  so 
highly  esteemed  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  the  flower  of 
which  contrasts  so  beautifully  with  the  liquid  ground  on 


UNDER  MOHAMMED  ALI.  281 

which  it  reposes,  as  well  as  with  the  arid  waste  by  which  it 
is  surrounded. 

The  citadel,  which  occupies  part  of  the  ridge  of  Mokat- 
tam,  is  a place  of  considerable  strength,  but,  like  most  other 
ancient  buildings  in  Egypt,  greatly  encumbered  with  ruins. 
The  palace  of  the  pasha  is  not  worthy  of  notice  on  any 
other  account  than  as  being  the  residence  of  so  distinguished 
a person  when  he  chooses  to  live  in  his  capital.  It  is  a 
small  house,  plain,  and  without  any  exterior  decoration, 
except  that  it  has  more  glass-windows  in  front  than  Turkish 
dwellings  usually^  exhibit.  The  Well  of  Joseph,  in  the 
middle  of  the  fortress,  calls  us  back  to  the  twelfth  century, 
the  era  of  the  renowned  Saladin,  by  whom  it  was  excavated, 
and  whose  name,  Yousef,  it  continues  to  bear.  It  is  about 
45  feet  in  circumference  at  the  top,  and  is  dug  through  the 
soft  calcareous  rock  to  the  depth  of  about  270  feet,  where 
it  meets  a spring  of  brackish  water  on  a level  with  the  Nile, 
from  which  indeed  it  is  derived, — owing  its  saline  impreg- 
nation to  the  nature  of  the  soil  through  which  it  has  filtered. 
The  water  is  raised  in  buckets  by  two  wheels  drawn  by 
oxen, — the  one  being  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the 
other  at  the  depth  of  150  feet.  The  main  use  of  this  cele- 
brated cistern,  besides  partly  supplying  the  garrison,  is  to 
irrigate  the  adjoining  gardens,  and  keep  alive  the  little  ver- 
dure which  adorns,  the  interior  of  the  fortress  ; but  it  is 
preserved  in  tolerable  repair  from  the  consideration,  that 
were  the  place  ever  subjected  to  a siege,  the  stream  of  Jo- 
seph’s Well  would  become  the  sole  reliance  of  the  troops  as 
well  as  of  the  numerous  inhabitants. 

The  memory  of  Saladin  is  farther  associated  with  the 
citadel  by  means  of  a ruin  called  Joseph’s  Hall,  and  which 
is  understood  to  have  formed  part  of  the  palace  of  that  war- 
like prince.  The  columns,  it  is  manifest,  have  been  taken 
from  some  more  ancient  building  at  Memphis,  being  gene- 
rally monolithic,  or  consisting  of  a single  stone,  tall  and 
massy,  and  adorned  with  highly-wrought  capitals.  In  the 
days  of  Saracenic  magnificence,  this  must  have  been  a truly 
splendid  edifice,  meriting  in  some  degree  the  praises  be- 
stowTed  upon  the  royal  residences  of  that  aspiring  and  inge- 
nious people.  But  it  is  now  in  a very  dilapidated  condition, 
part  being  converted  into  a magazine,  and  part  used  as  a 
granary ; while  the  whole  has  such  a waste  and  mournful 


282 


ACTUAL  STATE  OP  EGYPT,  ETC. 

appearance,  as  to  be,  in  truth,  more  desolate  and  less  in- 
teresting than  if  it  were  a complete  ruin.* 

But,  in  describing  Joseph’s  Hall,  we  apprehend  that  we 
have  spoken  of  an  architectural  relic  which  no  longer 
exists.  In  the  year  1824  the  citadel  was  much  shaken  by 
the  explosion  of  a magazine ; whence  arose  the  necessity 
of  a thorough  repair  in  several  of  the  remaining  buildings 
of  the  fortress.  Among  the  ruins  pointed  out  for  demo- 
lition were  the  surviving  walls  of  Saladin’s  palace ; on  the 
site  of  which  was  about  to  be  erected  a square,  meant  proba- 
bly for  the  better  accommodation  of  the  troops.  The  roof 
of  this  edifice,  which  might  long  have  withstood  the  ravages 
of  time,  was  very  much  admired.  It  was  formed  of  a suc- 
cession of  little  domes  made  of  wood,  into  which  were 
introduced  concave  circles  containing  octagons  of  blue  and 
gold.  The  corners  and  arches  of  the  buildings  were  carved 
in  the  best  Saracenic  manner,  and  in  many  places  the 
colours  and  gilding  continued  perfectly  bright. 

Cairo,  although  it  cannot  boast  of  an  origin  so  ancient 
as  that  of  Thebes,  nor  of  a mythology  which  connected  the 
present  life  so  closely  with  the  next,  has  nevertheless  a city 
of  tombs,  a Necropolis  on  which  has  been  lavished  much 
treasure  combined  with  a certain  portion  of  architectural 
taste.  The  desert  towards  the  east  is  studded  with  sepul- 
chres and  mausoleums,  some  of  which  produce  a very  striking 
effect.  As  every  Turk  throughout  the  empire,  from  the 
grand  signior  to  the  meanest  peasant,  is  compelled  to  be  of 
some  profession  ; and  as  every  calling  has  its  peculiar  head- 
dress, which  is  represented  on  a pole  at  the  grave  of  the 
deceased, — a burial-place  in  a Moslem  country  has  necessa- 
rily a singular  appearance.  The  celebrated  tombs'  of  the 
Mamlouks  are  going  fast  to  decay,  their  boasted  magnifi- 
cence being  now  limited  to  a gilt  inscription  ; but,  in  order 
that  the  reader  mgy  be  enabled  to  form  a judgment  as  to 
their  grandeur  in  former  days,  we  insert  a drawing  taken 
from  the  splendid  work  on  Egypt  published  by  the  imperial 
government  of  France. 

The  cemetery  of  the  pasha  is  the  most  sumptuous  of 
modern  structures  in  the  Necropolis  of  Cairo.  It  is  a 
vaulted  stone  building,  consisting  of  five  domes,  under 


Richardson,  vol.  i.  p.  48. 


284 


ACTUAL  STATE  OF  EGYPT 


which,  in  splendid  chambers  composed  of  marble,  are  laid 
the  bodies  of  his  two  sons  Toussoun  and  Ishmael,  and  of 
his  favourite  wife  the  mother  of  these  youths.  Having 
mentioned  this  lady,  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  add  that 
she  possessed  an  astonishing  degree  of  influence  over  her 
impetuous  husband,  who  always  regarded  her  as  the  foun- 
dation of  his  good  fortune.  She  was  much  esteemed,  too, 
and  beloved  by  the  people ; for  her  power  was  uniformly 
exerted  on  the  side  of  justice  and  mercy.  Much  of  her 
time  was  occupied  in  receiving  petitions  ; but  it  was  seldom 
jshe  had  to  refer  them  to  the  pasha,  as  her  ascendency  was 
too  well  known  by  the  ministers  to  require  this  last  appeal. 
If,  however,  in  consequence  of  any  demur  on  their  part,  she 
had  to  apply  to  him,  he  answered  their  remonstrance  by 
saying, — “ ’Tis  enough.  By  my  two  eyes  ! if  she  requires 
it  the  tiling  must  be  done,  be  it  through  fire,  water,  or 
stone.” 

Mohammed  Ali  generally  resides  at  Shoubra,  where  he  has 
built  a splendid  palace,  and  planted  a garden  after  the  Euro- 
pean fashion.  The  ceilings,  executed  by  a Grecian  artist, 
are  lofty  and  vaulted,  ornamented  with  gold,  and  with -repre- 
sentations of  landscapes,  or  of  palaces  and  colonnades,  the 
whole  being  painted  in  light  and  pleasing  colours.  The 
sultana’s  private  sitting-room  is  still  more  sumptuous. 
During  the  heats  of  summer  his  highness  occupies  an 
apartment  below,  particularly  adapted  for  coolness,  having 
a marble  fountain  in  the  centre  amply  supplied  with  a 
constant  stream  of  water.  On  one  of  the  walls  is  inscribed, 
in  large  Arabic  characters,  a verse  from  the  Koran,  signify- 
ing “ an  hour  of  justice  is  worth  seventy  days  of  prayer.” 

But  the  chief  embellishment  of  the  place  is  a magnificent 
pavilion,  about  250  feet  long  by  200  broad.  On  its  sides 
run  four  galleries  or  colonnades,  composed  of  elegant  pillars 
of  the  finest  white  marble,  surrounding  a sunken  court  six 
feet  deep,  paved  throughout  with  the  same  beautiful  mate- 
rial. At  each  corner  of  the  colonnade  is  a terrace,  over 
which  water  passes  into  the  court  below  in  a murmuring 
cascade,  having  on  its  ledges  figures  of  fish,  sculptured  so 
true  to  nature  that  they  appear  to  move  in  the  flowing 
stream.  The  whole  supply  of  water  rises  again  through  a 
fountain  in  the  centre,  and  reappears  in  a beautiful  jet-d’eau, 
lofty,  sparkling,  and  abundant.  In  fine  weather  the  pasha 


UNDER  MOHAMMED  ALI. 


285 


occasionally  resorts  to  this  splendid  fountain  with  the  ladies 
of  his  harem,  who  row  about  in  the  flooded  court  for  the 
amusement  of  his  highness,  while  he  is  seated  in  the  colon- 
nade. Great  is  the  commotion  when  the  ladies  descend 
into  the  garden.  A signal  is  given,  and  the  gardeners 
vanish  in  a moment.  Mrs.  Lushington  was  struck  with 
the  ruddy  cheeks  and  healthy  appearance  of  these  men. 
They  are  principally  Greeks  ; and  the  gay  colours  of  their 
fanciful  costume, — each  with  a nosegay  .or  bunch  of  fruit 
in  his  hand, — combined  writh  the  luxuriant  scenery  around, 
gave  them  more  the  semblance  of  actors  in  a ballet  repre* 
senting  a fete  in  Arcadia  than  the  real  labourers  of  a Turk- 
ish despot.* 

This  chapter  would  be  incomplete  were  we  not  to  com- 
pare what  Egypt  is  at  present  with  what  it  was  at  the 
beginning  of  the  century. 

When  Mohammed  assumed  the  command  anarchy 
reigned  in  fevery  department.  The  country  was  distracted 
by  the  conflicting  pretensions  of  the  Mamlouks,  aided  by 
the  Bedouin  Arabs,  the  Albanians,  and  the  Turks,  with 
many  rival  chieftains.  The  soldiers  were  mutinous ; the 
finances  were  exhausted  ; property  was  insecure  ; agricul- 
ture was  neglected  ; and  commerce  languished.  But  now 
every  thing  is  improved ; the  wild  Arabs  are  submissive ; 
the  military  are  controlled,  lodged  in  barracks  or  tents,  and 
regularly  paid  ; the  finances  prodigiously  increased ; new 
articles  of  produce  raised ; and  trade  carried  on  to  an 
extent  formerly  unknown.  The  whole  country  from  Alex- 
andria to  Syene  is  perfectly  tranquil,  and  travellers  pass 
unmolested  with  as  much  freedom  and  safety  as  on  the 
continent  of  Europe.  It  is  not  pretended  that  the  viceroy 
has  not  his  failings ; he  has  many : but  to  estimate  his 
character  he  should  be  judged  by  the  standard  of  other 
Mohammedan  princes, — of  the  pashas  of  Syria  or  Turkey, 
for  example  ; — and  which  of  all  these  can  be  compared  to 
him '?  It  is-hardly  fair  to  try  him  by  our  notions  of  excellence, 
when  every  thing — custom,  religion,  government — are  so  dif- 
ferent. His  defects  are  those  of  education  and  example ; his 
improvements  are  the  fruit  of  his  own  genius  and  patriotism,  t 

* Narrative  of  a Journey,  p.  128. 

t Quarterly  Review,  vol.  xxx.p.  508.  Mr.  Came  remarks  that  the 
firm  and  decisive  character  of  Mohammed  is  in  nothing  more  visible  than 


286 


ACTUAL  STATE  OF  EGYPT,  ETC# 


A report  has  reached  Europe  that  this  remarkable  person 
has  conceded  to  his  people  the  benefits  of  a representative 
government  and  a voice  in  the  administration  of  public 
affairs.  But  the  information  is  much  too  vague  to  be  en- 
titled to  a place  in  the  records  of  history. 

The  future  prosperity  of  Egypt  depends  in  a great 
degree  upon  the  successor  of  the  present  viceroy.  Ibrahim, 
the  son  of  his  wife,  and  the  Defturder,  who  is'  his  son-in- 
law  by  marriage,  will  probably  divide  the  choice  of  Moham- 
med. The  former  is  more  likely  to  obtain  the  recommenda- 
tion of  the  pasha  and  the  sanction  of  the  Sublime  Porte, 
because  he  is  more  friendly  than  the  other  to  the  re- 
generation which  has  been  effected  throughout  the  country 
with  results  so  favourable  even  to  the  supreme  government 
Should  the  election  fall  on  the  husband  of  Ali’s  daughter, 
the  consequences  will  be  deplorable ; for  he  is  not  only  a 
decided  enemy  to  the  Franks  and  to  the  late  innovations, 
but  regards  them  both  with  the  eye  of  a bigoted  Mussul- 
man. 

in  the  perfect  secnrity  and  quietness  that  reign  throughout  his  dominions. 
The  traveller  there  dreams  no  more  of  violence  than  he  would  do  in  any 
town  throughout  Scotland  or  Wales ; from  the  capital  to  the  Cataracts 
every  man's  hand  is  at  peace  with  him,  and  he  may  ramble  along  the 
banks  of  the  Nile  with  as  entire  an  ease  and  abandon  as  on  those  of  his 
native  rivers  or  in  his  own  garden  at  home.— Recollections  of  the  East 
p.  284. 


THE  OASES,  ETC.  OF  THE  THEBAID.  287 


CHAPTER  IX. 

The  Oases,  Ancient  Berenice,  and^  Desert  of  the  Thebaid. 

Meaning  of  fhe  Term  Oasis — Those  of  Egypt  described  in  various  and 
opposite  Colours — Used  as  Places  of  Exile— Their  Number — The 
Great  Oasis — Described  by  Sir  A.  Edmonstone — Ancient  Buildings — 
Necropolis  or  Cemetery— Supposed  Origin  of  such  Land— Western 
Oasis — First  visited  by  Sir  A.  Edmonstone — El  Cazar— Soil — Position 
— The  Little  Oasis — El  Kassar — Greek  Temple — Fountain— El  Haix — 
El  Moele — Oasis  of  Siwah — Description  of  Towns — Of  the  Temple 
of  Jupiter  Ammon — Fountain  of  the  Sun — Sacred  Lake — Other  Oases 
— Desert  of  the  Thebaid — Berenice — Trade — Account  of  an  imaginary 
City  by  Caillaud— Situation  and  Extent  of  Berenice— Emerald  Moun- 
tains— Present  Condition  of  Miners — Inhabitants  of  the  Desert — 
Sharkin — Myos  HormUs — Cosseir. 

The  territory  of  Egypt  includes  certain  fertile  spots  in 
the  Libyan  desert,  which,  from  the  peculiarity  of  their 
situation,  amid  an  ocean  of  sand,  have  been  denominated 
islands.  The  term  oasis,  in  the  ancient  language  of  the 
country,  signifies  an  inhabited  place,  a distinction  suffi- 
ciently intelligible  when  contrasted  with  the  vast  wilderness 
around,  in  which  even  the  most  savage  tribes  have  not  ven- 
tured to  take  up  their  abode.  It  has  been  observed,  at  the 
same  time,  that  as  this  descriptive  epithet  is  applied  to  a 
cluster  of  oases  as  well  as  to  a single  spot  of  verdant 
ground,  the  use  of  it  has  become  somewhat  ambiguous.  In 
this  respect,  indeed,  they  bear  a striking  resemblance  to 
islands  in  the  great  sea,  where  one  of  larger  size  is  usually 
surrounded  by  others  of  smaller  dimensions ; all  taking  . 
their  name  from  some  circumstance,  geographical  or  phy- 
sical, which  is  common  to  the  whole. 

Like  Egypt  itself,  these  isolated  dependencies  have  been 
described  in  very  opposite  colours  by  different  writers. 
The  Greeks  called  them  the  islands  of  the  blessed ; and 
without  doubt  they  appear  delightful  in  the  eyes  of  the 
traveller  who  has  during  many  painful  weeks  suffered  the 
privations  and  fatigue  of  the  desert.  But  it  is  well  known 


288  THE  OASES,  AKCIENT  BERENICE, 

that  they  were  generally  regarded  in  a less  favourable 
aspect  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  who  not  unfrequently 
assigned  them  as  places  of  banishment.  The  state  male- 
factor and  the  ministers  of  the  Christian  church,  who  were 
sometimes  comprehended  in  the  same  class,  were,  in  the 
second  and  third  centuries,  condemned  to  waste  their  days 
as  exiles  in  the  remote  solitude  of  the  Libyan  Oasis.  They 
were  usually  reckoned  three  in  number  ; the  Great  Oasis, 
of  which  the  principal  to\frn  is  El  Kargeh  ; the  Little  Oasis, 
or  that  of  El  Kassar;  and -the  Northern  Oasis,  more  fre- 
quently called  Siwah.  To  these  is  now  added  the  Western 
Oasis,  which  does  not  appear  to  have  been  mentioned  by 
any  ancient  geographer  except  Olympiodorus,  and  which 
was  never  seen  by  any  European  until  Sir  Archibald 
Edmonstone  visited  it  about  ten  years  ago. 

The -Great  Oasis,  the  most  southern  of  the  whole,  con- 
sists of  a number  of  insulated  spots,  which  extend  in  a line 
parallel  to  the  course  of  the  Nile,  separated  from  one 
another  by  considerable  intervals  of  sandy  waste,  and 
stretching  not  less  than  a hundred  miles  in  latitude.  M. 
Poncet,  who  examined  it  in  1698,  says  that  it  contains 
many  gardens  watered  with  rivulets,  and  that  its  palm- 
groves  exhibit  a perpetual  verdure.  It  is  the  first  stage 
of  the  Darfur -caravan,  which  assembles  at  Siout,  being 
about  four  days’  journey  from  that  town,  and  nearly  the 
same  distance  from  Farshout.  The  exertions  of  Browne, 
Caillaud,  Edmonstone,  and  Henniker  have  supplied  to  the 
European  reader  the  most  ample  details  relative  to  this  in- 
teresting locality,  which,  there  can  be  no  doubt,  must  have 
been  the  scene  of  civilized  life,  and  perhaps  of  political  in- 
stitutions, at  a very  remote  era. 

An  interesting  account  of  the  architectural  ruins  of 
the  Great  Oasis  is  to  be  found  in  the  pages  of  Sir  A. 
Edmonstone,  who  tells,  that  about  a mile  and  a half 
towards  the  north  of  El  Kargeh,  he  observed  on  an  emi- 
nence a building  which  proved  to  be  a small  quadrangular 
temple  31  feet  long  by  21  broad,  of  which  three  sides  are 
still  remaining.  The  walls  on  the  inside  are  covered  with 
figures  and  hieroglyphics,  greatly  defaced,  but  of  distin- 
guished elegance.  There  was  the  usual  enclosure  of  un- 
burnt brick,— a defence  necessary  in  a country  so  much 


AND  DESERT  OF  THE  THEBAID. 


289 


exposed  to  hostile  incursions  as  this  has  always  been. 
From  hence  he  discovered  a larger  temple  at  a short  dis- 
tance to  the  north-west,  and  on  a high  ground  still  farther 
in  the  same  direction  several  buildings  like  the  ruins  of  an 
Arab  town.  On  approaching  the  temple  he  was  struck 
with  the  beauty  of  the  situation,  in  the  midst  of  a rich 
wood,  consisting  of  palm,  acacia,  and  other  trees,  with  a 
stream  of  water  in  front. 

In  point  of  magnitude  it  far  exceeded  any  thing  he  had 
hitherto  seen.  The  entry  is  through  a dromos , of  which 
the  enclosures  are  so  broken  that  it  is  difficult  to  discern 
the  shape.  He  could  distinguish,  however,  that  it  had  been 
formed  by  a parapet  wall  surmounted  with  a cornice,  con- 
necting ten  columns,  with  spaces  on  each  side  to  admit  an 
easy  approach.  The  temple  stands  east  and  west,  and  a rich 
cornice  runs  all  round  the  top.  The  front  is  completely  covered 
with  colossal  figures  and  hieroglyphics,  which,  as  they  extend 
but  half-way  to  the  north  and  south  sides,  give  the  .vhole  exte- 
rior rather  an  unfinished  appearance.  The  great  doorway  is 
much  ornamented,  and  leads  to  a magnificent  apartment,  60 
feet  by  54,  with  twelve  columns,  13  feet  in  circumference. 
The  second  chamber,  54  feet  by  18,  is  divided  from  the  first 
by  a sort  of  screen,  formed  by  a wall  lower  than  that  of  the 
temple,  intersected  by  four  columns,  which,  together  with  four 
others  in  the  centre  of  the  apartment,  now  fallen,  are  of  the 
same  size  with  those  above  mentioned.  The  chamber  is 
traced  all  over  with  figures  and  hieroglyphics  on  stucco, 
retaining  marks  of  paint,  particularly  blue  and  red ; whereas, 
the  first  is  quite  plain,  except  on  the  west  side.  The  third 
apartment  31  feet  by  29,  is  ornamented  likewise,  and  con- 
tains eight  columns,  but  of  much  smaller  dimensions  than 
the  others.  Last  comes  the  adytum , or  shrine,  20  feet  by 
8,  richly  carved,  though  blackened  with  smoke.  On  each 
side  are  two  compartments  detached,  but  so  choked  up  that 
it  was  impossible  to  ascertain  their  shape.  The  roof  of  the 
rest  of  the  building  is  fallen  in,  except  some  slabs  occa- 
sionally supported  by  pillars ; but  that  of  the  adytum, 
which  is  lower,  is  entire.  One  of  the  stones  used  for  cover- 
ing this  latter  apartment  is  35  feet  by  19  feet  4 inches,  and 
2 feet  3 inches  thick. 

To  the  east  of  the  temple  are  three  detached  doorways, 
at  different  intervals,  and  of  different  proportions.  As  they 
B b 


2S0 


THE  OASES,  ANCIENT  BERENICE, 


do  not  resemble  the  propvla  which  are  usual  in  other  parts 
of  Egypt,  Sir  Archibald  is  of  opinion  that  this  edifice  was 
originally  surrounded  with  a triple  wall,  in  the  manner 
described  by  Diodorus  as  applicable  to  the  fane  of  Jupiter 
Ammon.  The  first  is  a solid  building,  with  figures  all 
round  it ; among  others,  on  the  inside,  is  a colossal  repre- 
sentation of  Osiris  at  a banquet.  The  same  is  again  found 
on  the  west  front.  On  the  roof  are  four  spread  eagles  or 
vultures,  painted  red  and  blue.  The  second  doorway, 
which  is  at  some  distance  in  the  same  direction,  but  not  in 
the  same  line,  is  considerably  higher  than  even  the  temple 
itself.  Only  one-half  is  standing,  having  a few  figures 
inside  carved  in  relief,  and  some  remains  of  brickwork 
strongly  piled  on  the  top.  As  it  is  too  high  for  any  pur- 
poses of  defence,  a conjecture  has  been  advanced,  that  it 
may  have  been  the  residence  of,  one  of  the  Stelite  hermits, 
of  whose  superstitious  practices  many  traces  still  remain. 
The  last  of  the  three  propyla  is  low  and  imperfect ; but  it 
is  remarkable  for  an  inscription  in  Greek  letters,  with  which 
the  east  end  is  completely  covered,  containing  a rescript, 
published  in  the  second  year  of  the  emperor  Galba,  relating 
to  a reform  in  the  administration  of  Egypt. 

In  regard  to  what  appeared  at  first  as  the  ruins  of  an 
Arab  town,  we  are  informed,  that,  upon  a closer  examina- 
tion, it  proved  to  be  a necropolis  or  cemetery,  consisting  of 
a great  variety  of  buildings,  not  fewer  than  two  or  three 
hundred,  each  the  receptacle  of  a number  of  mummies. 
The  greater  part  are  square,  and  surmounted  with  a dome 
similar  to  the  small  mosques  erected  over  the  tombs  of 
sheiks ; having  generally  a corridor  running  round,  which 
produces  an  ornamental  effect  very  striking  at  a distance, 
and  gives  them  a nearer  resemblance  to  Roman  than  to  any 
existing  specimen  of  Greek  or  Egyptian  architecture. 
Some  few  are  larger  than  the  rest.  One,  in  particular,  is 
divided  into  aisles  like  our  churches ; and  that  it  has  been 
used  as  such  by  the  early  Christians  is  clearly  evinced  by 
the  traces  of  saints  painted  on  the  walls.  In  all  there  is  a 
Greek  cross,  and  the  celebrated  Egyptian  hieroglyphic,  the 
crux  ansata , or  cross  with  a handle,  w'hich,  originally  signi- 
fying life,  would  appear  to  have  been  adopted  as  a Christian 
emblem,  either  from  its  similarity  to  the  shape  of  the  cross, 
or  from  its  being  considered  the  symbol  of  a future  existence* 


AXD  DESERT  OF  THE  THEBAID. 


291 


But  the  great  peculiarity  is  a large  square  hole  in  the  centre 
of  each,  evidently  for  the  purpose  of  containing  a mummy, 
and  which,  from  the  fragments  and  wrappings  which  lay 
scattered  about,  had  probably  been  ransacked  for  the  sake 
of  plunder.  Sir  Archibald  imagines  these  sepulchres  to  be 
of  Roman  construction  at  an  early  period,  since  it  is  gene- 
rally believed  that  the  practice  of  embalming  was  gradually 
discontinued  in  Egypt  after  the  extension  of  Christianity ; 
but  he  adds,  “ among  the  various  receptacles  for  the  re- 
mains of  the  dead,  from  the  stupendous  pyramid  to  the  rudest 
cavern,  I know  of  none,  existing  or  recorded,  at  all  corres- 
ponding to  them  in  shape  and  appearance.”* 

There  are  several  other  ruins  in  the  neighbourhood -of  El 
Kargeh,  which  appear  to  combine  the  relics  of  Egyptian 
paganism  with  the  symbols  of  Christian  worship,  and 
thereby  lead  us  to  conclude  that  the  edifices  ma)7  have  been 
repaired  in  the  early  ages  of  our  faith  after  being  relin- 
quished by  the  more  ancient  occupants.  For  a more  minute 
account  of  these  remains  we  take  leave  to  refer  the  curious 
reader  to  the  work  already  indicated. 

Sir  F.  Henniker  speaks  rather  contemptuously  of  the 
ecclesiastical  architecture  which  happened  to  fall  under  his 
notice  in  that  oasis.  There  is  a temple  which  he  describes 
as  a small  building  composed  of  petty  blocks  of  stone,  the 
pillars  of  which  are  only  two  feet  six  inches  in  diameter, 
and,  “ even  these,  instead  of  being  formed  of  one  solid  block, 
are  constructed  of  millstones.”  He  adds,  that  the  surface 
of  the  earth  in  the  vicinity  of  the  temple  is  very  remarkable ; 
it  is  covered  with  a lamina  of  salt  and  sand  mixed,  and  has 
the  same  appearance  as  if  a ploughed  field  had  been  flooded 
over,  then  frozen,  and  the  water  drawn  off  from  under  the 
ice.t 

This  remark  suggests  a question  relative  to  the  origin  of 
these  grassy  islands  in  the  desert.  Major  Rennel  thinks 
that  they  may  be  attributed  to  the  vegetation  which  would 
necessarily  be  occasioned  by  springs  of  water ; the  decay 
of  the  plants  producing  soil  until  it  gradually  increased  to 
the  extent  of  several  leagues.  They  are  universally  sur- 
rounded by  higher  ground, — a circumstance  which  accounts 
for  the  abundance  of  moisture.  Fezzan,  in  particular,  is 

* Edmonstone’s  Journey  to  tw'pof  the  Oases  of  Upper  Egypt.p.  62,  &c, 
f JVoteSj  p.  188. 


292 


THE  OASES,  ANCIENT  BERENICE. 


nearly  encircled  with  mountains  ; and  the  descent  from  the 
western  barrier  of  Egypt  into  the  middle  level  of  the  Greater 
Oasis  is  distinctly  marked  by  Mr.  Browne.  Their  fertility 
has  always  been  deservedly  celebrated.  Strabo  mentions 
the  superiority  of  their  wine  ; Abulfeda  and  Edrisi  the 
luxuriance  of  the  palm-trees  ; and  our  poet  Thomson  extols 

“ the  tufted  isles 

That  verdant  rise  amid  the  Libyan  wild.” 

Summer,  v.  812. 

The  climate,  however,  is  extremely  variable,  especially  in 
winter.  Sometimes  the  rains  in  the  Western  Oasis  are 
very  abundant,  and  fall  in  torrents,  as  appears  from  the 
furrows  in  the  rocks  ; but  the  season  Sir  A.  Edmonstone 
made  his  visit  there  was  none  at  all,  and  the  total  want  of 
dew  in  the  hot  months  sufficiently  proves  the  general  dry- 
ness of  the  atmosphere.  The  springs  are  all  strongly  im- 
pregnated with  iron  and  sulphur,  and  hot  at  their  sources ; 
but,  as  they  continue  the  same  throughout  the  whole  year, 
they  supply  to  the  inhabitants  one  of  the  principal  means 
of  life.  The  water,  notwithstanding,  cannot  be  used  until 
it  has  been  cooled  in  an  earthen  jar. 

It  was  in  the  year  1819  that  the  author  just  cited,  in 
company  with  two  friends,  Messrs.  Hoghton  and  Master, 
joined  a caravan  of  Bedouins  at  Beni  Ali,  and  entered  the 
Libyan  desert,  proceeding  towards  the  south-west.  At  the 
end  of  six  days,  having  travelled  about  one  hundred  and 
eighty  miles,  they  reached  the  first  village  of  the  Western 
Oasis,  which  is  called  Bellata.  Having  explained  to  the 
inhabitants  that  their  object  was  “ old  buildings,”  they  were 
informed  that  there  were  some  in  the  neighbourhood. 
‘‘Accordingly,”  says  Sir  Archibald,  “in  the  evening  we 
rode  to  see  them,  and  in  our  way  passed  through  a beautiful 
wood  of  acacias,  the  foliage  of  which,  at  a little  distance, 
recalled  English  scenery  to  our  recollection.  The  trees  far 
exceeded  in  size  any  I had  ever  seen  of  the  kind,  and  upon 
measuring  the  trunk  of  one  it  proved  to  be  17  feet  3 inches 
in  circumference.”* 

El  Cazar,  however,  appears  to  be  the  principal  town  of 
the  oasis.  The  situation  of  the  place,  we  are  told,  is  per- 


Journey  to  Two  of  the  Oases,  p.  44. 


AND  DESERT  OF  THE  THEBAID. 


293 


fectly  lovely,  being  on  an  eminence  at  the  foot  of  a line  of 
rock  which  rises  abruptly  behind  it,  and  encircled  by  exten- 
sive gardens  filled  with  palm,  acacia,  citron,  and  various 
other  kinds  of  trees,  some  of  which  are  rarely  seen  even  in 
those  regions.  The  principal  edifice  is  an  old  temple  or 
convent  called  Daer  el  Hadjur,  about  fifty  feet  long  by 
twenty-five  wide,  but  presenting  nothing  either  very  mag- 
nificent or  curious.  The  first  chamber  is  24  feet  by  20, 
supported  by  four  pillars  five  feet  in  diameter  at  the  shaft, 
the  walls,  as  far  as  they  are  visible,  being  traced  with  figures 
and  hieroglyphics.  The  winged  globe,  encompassed  by  the 
serpent,  the  emblem  of  eternity,  is  carved  over  one  of  the 
doors. 

This  oasis  is  composed  of  twelve  villages,  of  which  ten 
are  within  five  or  six  miles  of  each  other ; the  remaining 
two  being  much  farther  off  at  the  entrance  of  the  plain,  and 
scarcely  looked  upon  as  belonging  to  this  division.  The 
sheik  expressed  his  belief  that  there  was  inhabited  land  to 
the  westward, — adding  that  some  Arabs,  who  had  lately 
attempted  to  explore  the  country  in  that  direction,  met  at 
the  end  of  three  days  such  a terrible  whirlwind  as  compelled 
them  to  return. 

The  prevailing  soil  is  a very  light  red  earth,  fertilized  en- 
tirely by  irrigation.  The  people  are  Bedouins,  who  acknow- 
ledge the  sovereignty  of  the  pasha,  and  pay  an  annual  tribute. 
The  only  manufacture  worthy  of  notice  is  that  of  indigo, 
the  method  of  producing  which  is  very  simple  : the  plant, 
when  dried,  is  put  into  an  earthen  jar  with  hot  water,  and 
agitated  by  means  of  a palm  branch,  resembling  the  handle 
of  a churn,  until  the  colour  is  pressed  out.  The  liquid  is 
then  strained  through  the  bark  of  a tree  into  another  jar, 
where  it  is  left  for  eight  or  nine  days,  during  which  time 
part  of  the  water  escapes  by  trickling  through  a small  aper- 
ture half-way  down  thp  side  of  it,  leaving  the  sediment  at  the 
bottom.  It  is  afterward  put  into  a broad  but  very  shallow 
hole  formed  in  the  sand,  which  absorbs  the  remaining 
liquid,  and  leaves  the  indigo  in  solid  cakes  on  the  surface. 
This  commodity  is  the  property  of  the  richer  inhabitants,  and 
is  one  of  the  very  few  articles  which  the  pasha  has  not  mo- 
nopolized, probably  from  ignorance  of  its  existence  in  that 
remote  district.* 


Journey,  p.  58, 

B b 2 


294 


THE  OASES,  ANCIENT  BERENICE, 


The  latitude  of  the  Western  Oasis  is  nearly  the  same'as 
that  of  Thebes  and  the  Great  Oasis,  or  about  26°  north. 
The  longitude  eastward  from  Greenwich  may  be  a little 
more  or  less  than  twenty-eight  degrees,  El  Kargeh  being 
estimated  at  thirty  degrees  ten  minutes,  and  the  distance 
between  it  and  Bellata  amounting  to  a journey  with  camels 
of  thirty-five  hours,  or  one  hundred  and  five  miles.  We 
may  add,  that  it  was  on  his  return  from  the  remoter  oasis 
to  the  Nile  that  Sir  Archibald  visited  the  cluster  of  islands 
of  which  El  Kargeh  is  the  chief,  and  where  he  found  the 
remains  of  the  magnificent  temple  already  described. 

The  Little  Oasis,  or  that  of  El  Kassar,  has  been  less 
visited  than  either  of  the  two  others  which  have  been  longest 
known  to  European  travellers.  We  owe  the  latest  and 
most  distinct  account  to  Belzoni,  who,  proceeding  in  search 
of  it  westward  from  the  valley  of  Fayoum,  arrived  at  the 
close  of  the  fourth  day  on  the  brink  of  what  he  calls  the 
Elloah, — that  is,  the  El  Wah,  or  El  Ouah,  from  which  the 
Greeks  formed  the  more  common  term  oasis.  He  describes 
it  as  a valley  surrounded  with  high  rocks,  forming  a spa- 
cious plain  of  twelve  or  fourteen  miles  in  length,  and  about 
six  in  breadth.  There  is  only  a small  portion  cultivated  at 
present,  but  there  are  many  proofs  remaining  that  it  must 
at  one  time  have  been  all  under  crop,  and  that  with  proper 
management  it  might  again  be  easily  rendered  fertile.  The 
first  village  he  entered  was  called  Zaboo,  where  he  met  with 
a kind  reception  upon  the  whole,  although  the  simple  in- 
habitants could  not  comprehend  why  a man  should  en- 
counter the  toils  and  perils  of  the  desert  merely  to  gratify 
his  curiosity  in  regard  to  old  buildings.  They  endeavoured 
to  persuade  him  that  the  Devil  had  taken  possession  of  all  the 
vaults  which  he  wished  to  examine  ; and  when  he  came  out 
they  expected  to  find  him  loaded  with  treasure, — the  only 
intelligible  object  for  which,  in  their  estimation,  he  could 
brave  so  formidable  an  enemy. 

From  Zaboo  he  went  to  El  Kassar,  the  chief  village  in 
that  group  of  oases.  There  he.  saw  the  remains  of  a Greek 
temple,  consisting  of  a high  wall  with  two  lateral  wings, 
and  an  arch  in  the  centre.  It  is  so  situated  that  it  must 
have  been  built  on  the  ruins  of  another  of  greater  dimen- 
sions. Its  breadth  is  about  sixty  feet,  and  its  length,  it  is 
presumed,  must  have  been  in  proportion.  There  were 


AND  DESERT  OF  THE  THEBAID. 


295 


several  tombs  excavated  in  the  rock  somewhat  like  those  of 
Egypt,  in  which  Mr.  Belzoni  found  several  sarcophagi  of 
baked  clay  with  the  mummies  inside, — their  folding  not  so 
rich  nor  so  fine,  the  linen  of  a coarse  sort,  and  the  corpses, 
being  without  asphaltum,  not  so  well  preserved.  His  atten- 
tion was  also  attracted  by  the  account  which  he  had  received 
of  a wrell  sixty  feet  deep,  whose  water  varies  in  its  tempera- 
ture twice  every  day.  When  he  first  put  his  hand  into  it, 
being  a little  after  sunset,  he  felt  it  warm  ; but  at  midnight 
it  was  apparently  much  warmer ; and  before  sunrise  it  was 
again  somewhat  cooler,  though  less  so  than  in  the  evening. 
“ For  instance,”  says  he,  “ if  we  were  to  suppose  the  water 
to  have  been  60°  in  the  evening,  it  might  be  100°  at  mid- 
night, and  in  the  morning  about  80°  ; but  when  I returned 
at  noon  it  appeared  quite  cold,  and  might  be  calculated  in 
proportion  to  the  other  at  40° Whatever  may  be  the 
causes  of  this  apparent  change  of  temperature,  it  was  of 
importance  to  prove  the  existence  of  the  fountain  itself,  ac- 
cording to  the  description  found  in  Herodotus,  who  says 
that  there  is  a well  near  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon, 
whose  water  is  cold  at  noon  and  midnight,  and  warm  in  the 
morning  and  evening.* 

It  is  now  known  that  such  fountains  are  not  peculiar  to 
any  one  of  the  oases,  having  been  discovered  in  various 
parts  of  the  Libyan  Desert ; and  hence  the  argument  of 
Belzoni,  in  regard  to  the  situation  of  the  temple  of  Ammon, 
entirely  loses  its  force.  All  the  waters  in  that  division  of 
Africa  are  strongly  impregnated  with  saline  and  mineral 
substances, — an  example  of  which,  in  the  form  of  a rivulet, 
he  records  as  having  presented  itself  to  his  observation*  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Zaboo.  “ It  is,”  says  he,  “ curious 
water ; for  if  white  woollen-cloth  be  put  into  it,  after 
twenty-four  hours  it  is  taken  out  as  black  as  any  dier  could 
make  it.”  The  change  of  temperature  is  obviously  effected 
by  the  chymical  qualities  of  the  strata  through  which  the 
spring  makes  its  way  under  ground,  modified  in  a certain 
degree  by  evaporation  and  the  presence  of  light  during  the 
heat  of  the  day. 

As  to  the  natives,  we  are  told  that  their  mode  of  living  is 
very  simple  : rice,  of  which  they  have  great  abundance,  is 


* Researches,  vol.  il.  p.  2 18 


296 


THE  OASES,  ANCIENT  BERENICE, 


their  chief  food  ; but  it  is  of  so  inferior  a sort  that  they  have 
little  traffic  in  it,  and  what  they  do  enjoy  is  only  among  the 
Bedouins  who  go  thither  yearly  to  purchase  dates.  They 
have  a few  camels  and  donkeys.,  several  cows,  buffaloes, 
goats,  and  sheep,  and  could  be  happy  in  this  Elysium,  as  it 
is  separated  from  the  rest  of  mankind ; but,  subjoins  Mr. 
Belzoni,  “ they  are  mortal,  and  they  must  have  their  evils  !” 
Their  greatest  enemies  are  their  own  neighbours  at  another 
village,  which  they  described  as  being  on  the  opposite  side 
of  a high  rock,  removed  from  them  three  days’  joumev. 
They  are  continually  in  dispute,  and  often  attack  one  another 
for  the  most  trifling  causes.* 

The  traveller  was  very  desirous  to  cross  the  desert  north- 
wards to  the  Oasis  of  Siwah,  but  he  could  not,  either  by 
promises  or  entreaties,  prevail  upon  any  one  to  become  his 
guide  in  so  perilous  an  adventure.  He  then  resolved  to  pro- 
ceed in  a south-west  direction,  in  search  of  a similar  district 
known  at  El  Kassar  by  the  name  of  El  Haix,  and  situated 
at  the  distance  of  thirty  hours’  journey.  Upon  his  arrival, 
he  found  it  a tract  of  land  forming  a crescent  of  more  than 
twenty  miles  in  extent,  and  presenting  some  spots  of  fertile 
ground  and  various  springs  of  excellent  water.  He  traced 
the  remains  of  an  ancient  town,  the  baths  of  which  are  still 
in  a state  of  good  preservation.  A Christian  church  of 
Grecian  architecture  and  the  ruins  of  a convent  were  like- 
wise clearly  distinguished  ; but  as  the  guide  selected  by 
Belzoni  was  recognised  at  El  Haix  as  the  sheik  of  one  of 
the  predatory  hordes  of  Bedouins,  who  from  time  to  time 
carry  terror  over  the  face  of  the  whole  desert,  a regard  to  his 
personal  safety  induced  him  to  shorten  his  visit. 

Soon  after  "his  return  to  El  Kassar  he  set  out  in  a south- 
easterly direction  for  a place  called  El  Moele,  where  he 
once  more  found  the  ruins  of  a small  village,  and  the  re- 
mains of  a very  large  Christian  church  and  convent.  Some 
of  the  paintings  on  the  wall  are  finely  preserv  ed,  particularly 
the  figures  of  the  twelve  apostles  on  the  top  of  a niche  over 
an  altar ; the  gold  is  still  to  be  seen  in  several  parts,  and 
the  features  are  perfectly  distinct.  El  Mode  is  situated  at 
the  extremity  of  a long  tract  of  land  which  had  been  culti- 
vated in  former  times,  but  is  now  abandoned  for  want  of 


* Researches,  vol.  ii.  p.  198. 


AND  DESERT  OF  THE  TIIEBAID. 


297 


water.  It  extends  more  than  ten  miles  from  west  to  east ; 
whence  it  required  a long  day’s  journey  to  bring  him  again 
to  the  banks  of  the  Nile. 

We  have  still  to  mention  the  Oasis  of  Siwah,  in  some 
respects  the  most  interesting  of  the  whole,  and  more  espe- 
cially t.s  connected  with  the  traditions  of  Jupiter  Ammon, 
whose  temple  it  is  generally  understood  to  contain.  It  is 
situated  in  lat.  29°  12'  N.,  and  in  long.  26°  6 E. ; being 
about  six  miles  long,  and  between  four  and  five  in  width, 
the  nearest  distance  from  the  river  of  Egypt  not  exceeding 
one  hundred  and  twenty  miles.  A large  proportion  of  the 
land  is  occupied  by  date-trees  ; but  the  palm,  the  pome- 
granate, the  fig,  the  olive,  the  vine,  the  apricot,  the  pium, 
and  even  the  apple  are  said  to  flourish  in  the  gardens.  No 
soil  can  be  more  fertile.  Tepid  springs,  too,  holding 
salts  in  solution,  are  numerous  throughout  the  district ; 
and  it  is  imagined  that  the  frequency  of  earthquakes  is 
connected  with  the  geological  structure  of  the  surrounding 
country. 

“ The  external  appearance  of  the  town  of  Siwah  is 
striking  and  singular,  as  well  as  its  internal  arrangements. 
It  is  built  on  a steep  conical  rock  of  testaceous  limestone, 
and  both  in  its  form  and  its  crowded  population  bears  a 
resemblance  to  a beehive.  The  streets,  narrow  and  crooked, 
are  like  staircases,  and  so  dark  from  the  overhanging  stories, 
that  the  inhabitants  use  a lamp  at  noonday.  In  the  centre 
of  the  town  the  streets  are  generally  five  feet  broad  and  about 
eleven  feet  high ; but  some  are  so  low  that  you  must  stoop 
to  pass  through  them.  Each  house  has  several  floors,  the 
upper  communicating  with  the  lower  by  galleries  and  cham- 
bers which  cover  the  streets.  The  number  of  stories  visible 
is  three  or  four,  but  there  are  in  fact  five  or  six.  On  every 
marriage  the  father  builds  a lodgment  for  his  son  above 
his  own,  so  that  the  town  is  continually  rising  higher.  The 
houses  and  walls  are  for  the  most  part  built  of  natron  or 
mineral  soda,  and  rock  salt  mixed  with  sand,  coated  with  a 
gypseous  earth  which  preserves  the  salt  from  melting.  The 
town  is  divided  into  two  quarters : the  upper  is  inhabited 
only  by  married  people,  women,  and  children  ; the  lower  by 
widowers  and  youths,  who,  though  allowed  to  go  into  the 
other  quarter  by  day,  must  retire  at  dusk  under  the  penalty 
of  a fine.  The  total  population  of  the  town  is  between 


298 


THE  OASES,  ANCIENT  BERENICE, 


2000  and  2500  ; that  of  the  oasis  at  large  is  supposed  to 
amount  to  8000  souls.”* 

But  a description  of  the  temple  of  Ammon  must  prove 
more  interesting  to  the  reader  than  any  details  respecting 
the  mode  of  life  pursued  by  barbarians.  A league  and  a 
half,  then,  from  the  town  of  Siwah,  towards  the  east,  are 
the  ruins  of  an  edifice  built  in  the  Egyptian  style,  to  which 
the  natives  give  the  name  of  Omn  Beydeh.  The  vestiges 
of  a triple  enclosure,  enormous  stones  lying  on  the  ground, 
and  masses  still  standing  prove  it  to  have  been  a monument 
of  the  first  order.  The  portion  still  remaining  and  in  tole- 
rable preservation  is  thirty-three  feet  in  length,  and  con- 
sists of  part  of  a gateway  and  two  great  walls,  which  are 
covered  with  three  immense  stones  measuring  thirty-four 
feet  by  twenty-seven.  The  only  apartment  that  could  be 
distinctly  made  out  was  112  feet  in  length;  the  whole 
area  of  ruins  being  a rectangular  space  about  360  feet 
by  300. 

The  decorations  are  observed  to  bear  the  closest  resem- 
blance to  those  of  the  Egyptian  monuments  ; the  figures, 
scenes,  and  arrangements  being  entirely  the  same.  Here 
is  the  god  with  the  ram’s  head,  such  as  is  seen  at  Thebes 
and  Latopolis,  who  also  receives  the  homage  of  the  priests. 
The  ram  is  the  animal  that  most  frequently  occurs  among 
the  ornaments.  The  interior  and  the  ceiling  of  the  apart- 
ment still  standing  are  richly  adorned  with  hieroglyphic 
sculptures  in  relief  and  coloured.  The  figures  of  the  gods 
and  priests  form  Jong  processions,  occupying  three  rows, 
surmounted  with  a multitude  of  hieroglyphic  tablets  painted 
blue  or  green.  The  same  style  and  the  same  cast  of  coun- 
tenance are  remarked  here  as  in  the  monuments  of  the 
Thebaid, — the  same  costumes  and  sacrifices.  The  roof  is 
occupied  by  two  rows  of  gigantic  vultures  with  extended 
wings,  with  tablets  of  hieroglyphics,  and  stars  painted  red 
on  a blue  ground.  Under  the  ruins  of  the  entrance-gate, 
and  on  two  of  the  faces  of  a rectangular  block,  is  sculptured 
in  full  relief  the  figure  of  Typhon  or  the  evil  genius,  about 
five  feet  high.  A similar  block  has  been  used  in  the  basis 
Of  the  mosque  of  Siwah  ; being  without  doubt  the  pedestals 


* Modern  Traveller,  Egypt,  vol.  ii.  p.  200 ; Cabinet  of  Foreign  Voyages, 
vel.  1. 


AND  DESERT  OF  THE  TIIEBAID. 


2 99 


of  columns  erected  after  the  manner  of  the  Typhonium  of 
Edfou,  to  which  these  ruins  bear  a resemblance,  though  on 
a larger  scale.* 

This  description,  which  does  much  credit  to  the  penetrat- 
ing eyes  and  vivid  fancy  of  a French  traveller,  the  zealous 
M . Drovetti,  may  be  contrasted  with  the  sober  delineation 
of  an  Englishman,  who  saw  no  more  than  was  actually  to 
be  seen  in  the  mouldering  walls  of  the  famous  El  Birbe, 
which  adorn  the  Oasis  of  Siwah.f 

Nearly  a mile  from  these  ruins,  in  a pleasant  grove  of 
date-palms,  is  still  discovered  the  celebrated  Fountain  of  the 
Sun,  dedicated  of  old  to  the  Ammonian  deity.  It  is  a small 
marsh  rather  than  a well,  extending  about  ninety  feet  in 
length  and  sixty  in  width,  but  is  at  the  same  time  perfectly 
transparent,  though  a constant  disengagement  of  air 
reveals  the  chymical  action  which  gives  a peculiar  character 
to  its  waters.  At  present,  not  less  perceptibly  than  in  the 
days  of  Herodotus,  the  temperature  is  subject  to  a diurnal 
ehange.  In  the  night  it  is  apparently  warmer  than  in  the 
day ; and  in  the  morning,  as  was  observed  by  the  ancients, 
a steam  rises  from  it,  denoting  the  refrigeration  of  the 
atmosphere.  Close  by  this  spring,  in  the  shade  of  the 
palm-grove,  are  the  traces  of  a small  temple,  supposed  to 
be  the  relics  of  the  sanctuary  mentioned  by  Diodorus  Sicu- 
lus as  being  near  the  Fountain  of  the  Sun. 

The  character  of  the  ruins  now  described  carries  back 
their  date  beyond  the  era  of  Christianity, — an  inference 
which  is  confirmed  by  the  appearance  of  a mountain  in  the 
neighbourhood,  a great  part  of  which  has  been  converted 
into  catacombs.  Some  of  these  sepulchral  chambers  are 
on  a magnificent  scale,  and  bear  a considerable  degree  of 
resemblance  to  the  celebrated  tombs  of  Thebes,  having  the 
same  variety  of  apartments,  and  even  of  decoration,  sculp- 
ture, arid  painting.  But,  unfortunately,  none  of  them  have 
escaped  violation,  and  in  the  greater  number  nothing  remains 
except  relics  of  ancient  mummies,  crumbling  bones,  and 
torn  linen.  About  ten  years  ago  a part  of  the  excavations 
was  possessed  by  a tribe  of  Arabs,  who  turned  them  into  a 
subterraneous  village. 

* Cabinet  of  Voyages,  vol.  i.  p.  205. 

t See  Travels  in  Africa,  Egypt,  and  Syria,  by  W.  G.  Browne.  Second 
edition,  p.  14,  (See. 


300 


THE  OASES,  ANCIENT  BERENICE, 


The  interest  of  the  traveller  is  still  excited  by  a succession 
of  lakes  and  temples  which  stretch  into  the  desert  far 
towards  the  west ; all  rendered  sacred  by  religious  associa- 
tions and  by  the  traditionary  legends  of  the  native  tribes. 
Tombs,  catacombs,  churches,  and  convents  are  scattered 
over  the  waste,  which  awaken  the  recollections  of  the 
Christian  to  the  early  history  of  his  belief,  and  which  at 
the  same  time  recall  to  the  Pagan  and  the  Mohammedan 
events  more  interesting  than  are  to  be  found  in  the  vulgar 
annals  of  the  human  race,  or  can  touch  the  heart  of  any 
but  those  wTho  are  connected  with  a remote  lineage  by  means 
of  a family  history.  At  a short  distance  from  the  sacred 
lake  there  is  a temple  of  Roman  or  Greek  construction, 
which  in  modem  times  bears  the  name  of  Kasr  Roum. 
The  portion  still  standing  is  divided  into  three  apartments, 
the  longest  of  which  is  fifty  feet  by  twenty-two,  and  the 
height  eighteen  feet.  The  roof,  composed  of  large  stones, 
is  still  remaining  in  a part  of  the  building;  but,  generally 
speaking,  both  the  covering  and  the  walls  have  fallen  down. 
Perhaps  the  only  remarkable  feature  attending  this  building 
is  the  fact  that  the  architecture  is  of  the  Doric  order,  the 
sculptures,  cornices,  and  friezes  being  executed  with  much 
care  and  precision, — a circumstance  which  cannot  fail  to 
excite  surprise  in  a country  surrounded  by  the  immense 
deserts  of  Libya,  and  at  the  distance  of  not  less  than  four 
hundred  miles  from  the  ancient  limits  of  civilization. 

In  the  consecrated  territory  of  that  mysterious  land  is 
the  salt  lake  of  Arashieh,  distant  two  days  and  a half  from 
Siwah,  in  a valley  enclosed  by  two  mountains,  and  extend- 
ing from  six  to  seven  leagues  in  circumference.  So  holy 
is  it  esteemed,  that  M.  Caillaud  could  not  obtain  permission 
to  visit  its  banks.  Even  the  pasha’s  firman  failed  to  alter 
the  determination  of  the  sheiks  on  this  essential  point. 
They  declared  that  they  would  sooner  perish  than  suffer  a 
stranger  to  approach  that  sacred  island,  which,  according 
to  their  belief,  contained  treasures  and  talismans  of  mys- 
terious power.  It  is  said  to  possess  a temple,  in  which  are 
the  seal  and  sword  of  the  prophet,  the  palladium  of  their 
independence,  and  not  to  be  seen  by  any  profane  eye.  A 
reasonable  doubt  may  indeed  be  entertained  as  to  these 
assertions ; for  M.  Drovetti,  who  accompanied  a detach- 
-ment  of  troops  under  Hassan  Bey,  walked  round  the  borders 


AND  DESERT  OF  THE  THEBAID. 


301 


of  the  lake,  and  observed  nothing  in  its  bosom  but  naked 
rocks.  Mr.  Browne,  too,  remarks,  that  he  found  “ mis- 
shapen rocks  in  abundance,”  but  nothing  that  he  could 
positively  decide  to  be  ruins, — it  being  very  unlikely,  he 
adds,  that  any  should  be  there,  the  spot  being  entirely  des- 
titute of  trees  and  fresh  water. 

Major  Rennell  has  employed  much  learning  to  prove 
that  the  Oasis  of  Siwah  is  the  site  of  the  famous  temple  of 
Jupiter  Ammon.  He  remarks,  that  the  variations,  between 
all  the  authorities  ancient  and  modern,  amount  to  little 
more  than  a space  equal  to  thrice  the  length  of  the  oasis 
in  question,  which  is  at  the  utmost  only  six  miles  long. 

“ And  it  is  pretty  clearly  proved  that  no  other  oasis  exists 
in  that  quarter  within  two  or  more  days’  journey  ; but,  on 
the  contrary,  that  Siwah  is  surrounded  by  a wide  desert : so 
that  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  this  oasis  is  the  same  with 
that  of  Ammon  ; and  the  edifice  found  there  the  remains  of 
the  celebrated  temple  from  whence  the  oracles  of  Jupiter 
Amnion  were  delivered.”* 

At  different  distances  in  the  desert,  towards  the  west, 
are  other  oases,  the  exact  position  and  extent  of  which  are 
almost  entirely  unknown  to  the  European  geographer. 
The  ancients,  who  we  are  satisfied  had  more  certain  intel- 
ligence in  regard  to  that  quarter  of  the  globe  than  is  yet 
possessed  by  the  moderns,  were  wont  to  compare  the  sur- 
face of  Africa  to  a leopard’s  skin  ; the  little  islands  of  fer- 
tile soil  being  as  numerous  as  the  spots  on  that  animal.  It 
is  probable  that  these  interesting  retreats  will  soon  be  better 
known;  for  the  authority  of  Mohammed  Ali  being  recog- 
nised as  far  as  his  name  is  known,  the  traveller  will  find 
the  usual  facilities  and  protection  which  are  so  readily 
granted  to  the  Franks  whom  an  enlightened  curiosity  leads 
into  his  dominions. 

The  desert  which  bounds  the  eastern  side  of  the  Egyptian 
valley,  and  stretches  to  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea,  presents 
likewise  to  the  philosopher  several  points  worthy  of  con- 
sideration. Mr.  Irwin,  who  travelled  from  Kenneh  to  Cairo 
by  a road  which  passes  obliquely  through  the  northern  part 
of  this  wilderness,  found  some  delightful  ravines  in  the  hilly 
barrier  by  which  it  is  guarded,  ornamented  with  beautiful 

* The  Geographical  System  of  Herodotus  Examined  and  Explained, 
6iC.,  vol.  ii.  p.  230.  Second  edition. 

C c 


002  TrtE  OASES,  ANCIENT  BERENICE, 

shrubs,  and  affording  a safe  retreat  to  the  timid  antelope. 
Some  tufts  of  wild  wheat,  a date-tree,  a well,  and  a grotto 
call  to  mind  the  old  anchorets  who  chose  in  these  solitudes 
to  relinquish  all  intercourse  with  the  sinful  world.  Two 
verdant  spots,  of  a similar  character,  near  the  Arabian 
Gulf,  between  Suez  and  Cosseir,  contain  the  monasteries 
of  St.  Anthony  and  St.  Paul,  surrounded  with  thriving 
orchards  of  dates,  olives,  and  apricots. 

But  the  most  interesting  object  on  the  shores  of  the  inlet 
just  mentioned  are  the  remains  of  Berenice,  a town  which 
connects  the  history  of  ancient  Egypt  with  that  of  the 
Macedonian  and  Roman  power  in  Africa,  and  at  the  same 
time  indicates  one  of  the  channels  through  which  commerce 
was  carried  on  between  the  remoter  parts  of  Asia  and  the 
notions  of  Europe.  According  to  Pliny,  it  was  through 
Berenice  that  the  principal  trade  of  the  Romans  with  India 
was  conducted,  b}r  means  of  caravans,  which  reached  the 
Nile  at  Coptos,  not  far  from  the  point  at  which  the  present 
shorter  road  by  Cosseir  meets  the  river.  By  this  medium 
it  is  said  that  a sum  not  less  than  400,000Z.  was  annually 
remitted  by  them  to  their  correspondents  in  the  East,  in 
payment  of  merchandise  which  ultimately  sold  for  a hundred 
times  as  much. 

An  exaggerated  account  of  an  ancient  city,  said  to  have 
been  discovered  in  that  neighbourhood,  was  published  some 
years  ago  in  a French  work,  purporting  to  convey  intelli- 
gence recently  received  from  M.  Caillaud,  a young  traveller 
in  Africa.  The  situation  was  described  as  being  a few 
leagues  from  the  Red  Sea,  and  currently  known  among  the 
Arabs  by  the  name  of  Sekelle.  The  ruins  consisted  of 
many  temples,  palaces,  and  private  houses  still  standing,  so 
that  they  might  in  some  respects  be  compared  to  the  relics 
of  Pompeii ; the  architecture  was  Grecian,  with  some 
Egyptian  ornaments ; several  inscriptions  seemed  to  prove 
that  the  town  must  have  been  built  by  the  Ptolemies,  while 
one  of  the  temples  was  evidently  dedicated  to  Berenice. 
The  hope  of  examining  so  many  splendid  monuments  of 
ancient  taste  induced  Belzoni  and  Mr.  Beechey  to  undertake 
a painful  journey  across  the  desert,  from  Esneh  to  the  Red 
Sea  ; in  the  course  of  which,  after  having  inspected  the  sur- 
rounding country  with  the  greatest  minuteness,  and  that,  too, 
under  the  direction  of  the  same  guide  who  had  attended 


AND  DESERT  OF  THE  TIIEBAID. 


303 


M.  Caillaud,  they  had  the  mortification  to  discover  that  the 
ardent  Frenchman,  beguiled  either  by  the  mirage  or  by  his 
own  heated  fancy,  had  seen  towers,  palaces,  and  temples, 
which  to  more  ordinary  observers  were  entirely  invisible. 
The  strictures  of  Belzoni,  whose  mind  was  entirely  devoted 
to  matters  of  fact,  are  more,  amusing  than  complaisant. 
“ All  that  we  saw  was  the  summits  of  other  lower  moun- 
tains, and  at  last  we  began  to  be  persuaded  that  no  such 
town  existed,  and  that  Monsieur  Caliud  (so  he  spells  the 
name)  had  seen  the  great  city  only  in  his  own  imagination. 
It  was  rather  provoking  to  have  undertaken  such  a journey 
in  consequence  of  such  a fabricated  description  ; and  I hope 
this  circumstance  will  serve  as  a warning  to  travellers  to 
take  care  to  what  reports  they  listen,  and  from  whom  they 
receive  their  information.  From  the  accounts  of  persons 
who  are  so  given  to  exaggeration,  one  cannot  venture  on  a 
journey  without  running  the  risk  of  being  led  astray  and 
disappointed,  as  we  were  in  our  search  after  the  said  town 
with  its  eight  hundred  houses, — and  very  like  Pompeii !” 

But  his  labour  was  at  length  rewarded  by  discovering  the 
site  of  the  real  Berenice  on  the  margin  of  the  sea,  and  at 
no' great  distance  from  the  position  in  which  it  is  laid  down 
by  M.  D’Anville.  The  ruins  have  assumed  the  appearance 
of  little  mounds,  but  the  lines  of  the  principal  streets,  never- 
theless, can  still  be  distinctly  traced,  and  even  the  forms  of 
the  houses,  though  these  last  are  for  the  most  part  filled 
with  sand.  The  materials  used  by  the  architects  of  Habesh 
were  somewhat  singular,  for  Belzoni  assures  us  that  he 
could  see  nothing  but  coral,  roots,  madrepore,  and  several 
petrifactions  of  seaweed.  The  temple,  he  adds,  is  built  of 
a kind  of  soft  calcareous  and  sandy  stone,  but  decayed  much 
by  the  air  of  the  sea. 

It  is  well  known  that  Berenice  was  built  by  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  a little  after  the  establishment  of  Myos 
Hormus.  Situated  in  a lower  part  of  the  gulf,  it  facilitated 
navigation  by  enabling  mariners  to  take  advantage  of  the 
regular  winds.  The  inland  route  between  Coptos  and 
Berenice  was  opened  with  an  army  by  the  same  prince,  wrho 
established  stations  along  it  for  the  protection  of  travellers. 
This  relation,  which  is  given  by  Strabo,  agrees  with  the 
Adulitic  inscription  preserved  in  Cosmas,  which  records  the 
Ethiopian  conquests  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes,  who  seems  to 


304 


THE  OASES,  ANCIENT  BERENICE, 


have  adopted  the  commercial  plans  of  his  father,  and  to 
have  endeavoured  to  extend  them.  The  Romans,  when 
they  conquered  Egypt,  immediately  perceived  the  import- 
ance of  these  arrangements ; Berenice  became  the  centre 
of  their  Eastern  trade,  and  Myos  Hormus  sunk  to  a subordi- 
nate station.  The  only  Greek  author  who  gives  an  account 
of  this  emporium  is  the  geographer  just  named.  All  the 
details,  indeed,  concerning  the  inland  route  from  Coptos  to 
Berenice  are  Roman.  It  occupied  twelve  days,  and  is  esti- 
mated at  258  miles  by  Pliny  and  the  compiler  of  the  Peutin- 
gerian  Tables.  The  port  of  Habesh,  the  name  that  the 
harbour  corresponding  to  Berenice  now  obtains,  is  derived 
from  the  appellation  which  the  African  shore  in  the  parallel 
of  Syen6  often  receives.* 

The  situation  of  this  interesting  town  must  have  been 
delightful.  The  sea  opens  before  it  on  the  east ; and,  from 
the  southern  coast  to  the  point  of  the  cape,  there  is  an 
amphitheatre  of  mountains,  with  a single  break  on  the 
north-west,  forming  the  communication  which  connects  it 
with  Egypt.  Right  opposite  there  is  a fine  harbour  entirely 
made  by  nature,  guarded  on  the  east  by  a projecting  rock, 
on  the  south  by  the  land,  and  on  the  west  by  the  town. 
The  extent  covered  by  the  ruins  was  ascertained  to  be  2000 
feet  by  1600,  which  was  calculated  to  contain  4000  houses  ; 
but,  that  he  might  “not  be  mistaken  for  another  Caliud,” 
Mr.  Belzoni  reduces  the  number  to  2000,  which  at  the  rate 
of  five  to  a family  gives  a population  of  about  10,000  per- 
sons, old  and  young.  The  temple,  which  measured  102 
feet  in  length  by  43  in  width,  proved  to  be  Egyptian  both 
in  its  plan  and  its  architecture,  having  figures  sculptured  in 
basso  relievo,  executed  with  considerable  skill,  together 
with  many  hieroglyphics.  The  plain  that  surrounds  the 
town  is  very  extensive  ; the  nearest  point  in  the  mountains 
which  form  the  crescent  being  not  less  than  five  miles  dis- 
tant. The  soil  is  so  completely  moistened  by  the  vapour 
from  the  sea  as  to  be  quite  suitable  for  vegetation,  and 
would  produce,  if  properly  cultivated,  abundant  pasture  for 
camels,  sheep,  and  other  domestic  animals.  At  present  it 
abounds  with  acacias  and  a small  tree  called  suvaro,  which 
last  grows  so  close  to  the  shore  as  to  be  under  water  every 


* Murray's  Historical  Account,  vol.  U.  p.  187. 


AXD  DESERT  OF  THE  THEBAID. 


305 


high  tide.  Unfortunately,  there  are  no  wells  nor  springs  in 
the  neighbourhood,  and  hence  a difficulty  in  accounting  for 
the  supply  of  an  article  altogether  indispensable  to  a town 
so  considerable  as  Berenice  must  have  been  during  the 
government  of  the  Ptolemies.  It  is  presumed  that  the 
contiguous  hills  would  afford  the  means  of  answering  this 
claim,  though  at  present  no  traces  of  an  aqueduct  can  be 
discovered. 

From  this  narrative  it  should  seem  that  the  city  which 
bears  the  name  of  Ptolemy’s  mother  is  situated  near  the 
24th  degree  of  latitude,  or  in  the  same  parallel  with  Syene. 
The  seashore  in  that  vicinity  is  formed  almost  entirely  of 
calcareous  matter,  in  the  shape  of  madrepores,  corals,  and 
shells,  all  aggregated  into  a solid  mass  like  a rock,  and 
stretching  from  the  bank  of  sand  which  constitutes  the 
boundary  of  the  tide  to  a great  distance  into  the  water.  A 
similar  phenomenon  occurs  in  Ceylon,  where  the  lime  held 
in  solution  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  combines  with  the 
siliceous  and  argillaceous  ingredients  of  the  beach,  and  gives 
rise  to  a continued  extension  of  the  coast  as  well  as  to  those 
coral  reefs  which  prove  so  dangerous  to  the  mariner.  “ All 
the  shore,”  says  the  traveller,  “ as  far  as  we  could  see,  was 
composed  of  a mass  of  petrifactions  of  various  kinds.”  In 
some  places  there  are  beds  of  sand,  but  there  is  not  a spot 
for  a boat  to  approach  the  beach  without  the  risk  of  being 
staved  against  the  rock. 

At  the  distance  of  twenty-five  miles,  in  a straight  line 
from  the  Red  Sea,  are  the  famous  Emerald  Mountains,  the 
highest  of  which,  from  a reference  to  its  subterranean  trea- 
sure, is  called  Zubara.  These  mines  were  formerly  visited 
by  Bruce,  whoseaccount  of  them  is  amply  confirmed  by  the 
latest  travellers,  who  in,  verifying  his  statements  do  no 
more  than  justice  to  his  memory,  so  long  and  so  ungene- 
rously reviled.  The  present  pasha  of  Egypt  made  an 
attempt  in  the  year  1818  to  renew  the  process,  which  had 
been  long  relinquished,  for  finding  those  precious  stones  so 
much  prized  by  the  former  conquerors  of  the  land.  About 
fifty  men  were  employed  when  Mr.  Belzoni  passed  the 
establishment ; but,  although  they  had  toiled  six  months, 
nothing  was  found  to  satisfy  the  avarice  of  their  powerful 
employer,  whom  they  execrated  in  their  hearts.  The  mines 
or  excavations  made  by  the  ancients  were  all  choked  up 
C c 2 


306 


THE  OASES,  ANCIENT  BERENICE, 


with  the  rubbish  , of  the  roof  that  had  fallen  in,  and  the 
labour  to  remove  it  was  great ; for  the  holes  were  very 
small,  scarcely  capable  of  containing  the  body  of  a man 
crawling  like  a chameleon.  These  unfortunate  wretches 
received  their  supply  of  provisions  from  the  Nile  ; but  occa- 
sionally it  did  not  arrive  in  due  time,  and  great  famine  of 
course  prevailed  among  them.  The  nearest  well  was  dis- 
tant about  half  a day’s  journey ; whence  it  is  not  surprising 
that,  deprived  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  and  feeling  that 
they  were  doomed  to  be  sacrificed  in  the  desert,  they  should 
have  repeatedly  risen  against  their  leaders  and  put  them  to 
death.* 

The  great  wilderness  of  Eastern  Egypt  is  occupied  by 
various  tribes  of  Arabs,  who  consider  its  different  sections 
as  their  patrimonial  inheritance.  The  Ababdeh  rule  over 
that  portion  of  it  which  stretches  from  the  latitude  of  Cos- 
seir  to  a distant  part  of  Nubia  ; the  Beni  Wassel  join  them 
on  the  north  ; and  these  again  are  succeeded  by  the  Ma- 
hazeh,  who  claim  an  authority  as  far  as  the  parallel  of  Beni 
Souef.  The  desert,  which  comprehends  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez,  is  in  the  possession  of  a fourth  family,  who  are  known 
by  the  designation  of  Hooat-al,  and  sometimes  by  that  of 
Atoonis  or  Antonis,  derived,  it  is  probable,  from  the  name  of 
the  saint  whose  convent  gives  celebrity  to  the  neighbourhood. 

It  has  been  observed  that  this  sterile  region  exhibits  the 
form  of  a triangle,  the  apex  of  which  is  placed  at  Suez, 
while  the  two  sides  rest  upon  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Nile. 
In  the  parallel  of  Cairo  the  river  is  scarcely  three  days’ 
journey  distant  from  the  sea ; at  Keft  the  distance  is  con- 
siderably increased ; farther  south  it  becomes  nine  days’ 
journey  ; while  at  Syene  it  is  computed  to  be  about  seven- 
teen. This  district,  which  from  its  eastern  situation  is 
denominated  Sharkin, — a word  latinized  into  Saracene, — is 
by  the  ancients  frequently  termed  Arabia,  from  the  simi- 
larity both  of  the  country  and  the  inhabitants.  It  has  also 
been  termed  Asiatic  Egypt.  The  chain  of  mountainous 
ridges  which  confine  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Nile  is  so  steep 
and  precipitous  that  it  frequently  exhibits  the  aspect  of  an 
artificial  fortification,  interrupted  at  intervals  by  deep  and 
rugged  ravines.  But,  as  if  this  natural  defence  had  not 


* Belzoni,  vol.  ii.  p.  40. 


AND  DESERT  OF  THE  THEBAID. 


307 


been  sufficient,  the  remains  of  a real  wall,  about  twenty- 
four  feet  thick,  formed  of  huge  stones,  and  running  from 
north  to  south,  is  asserted  to  have  been  discovered  in  this 
desert.  This  the  Arabs  suppose  to  have  been  constructed 
by  an  ancient  Egyptian  king,  and  hence  the  name  which  it 
continues  to  bear, — The  Wall  of  the  Old  Man.  The  greater 
part  of  this  arid  desert  affords  no  traces  of  animal  or  vege- 
table life  : “ The  birds,”  says  Dr.  Leyden,  “ shun  its  torrid 
atmosphere,  the  serpent  and  the  lizard  abandon  the  sands, 
and  the  red  ant,  which  resembles  in  colour  the  soil  on  which 
it  lives,  is  almost  the  only  creature  that  seems  to  exist 
among  the  ruins  of  nature.  But  the  monasteries  of  St. 
Anthony  and  St.  Paul  are  still  inhabited  by  Coptic  monks, 
who,  while  they  claim  an  absolute  power  over  demons  and 
wild  beasts,  are  unable  to  protect  themselves  from  the  wan- 
dering Arabs, — more  formidable  than  either  to  an  unarmed 
ascetic.”* 

Towards  Suez  the  shore  is  skirted  by  some  small  islands, 
which  are  as  barren  as  the  mainland.  The  principal  of 
these  are  the  Jaffatines,  four  in  number,  and  arranged  in 
the  form  of  a semicircle.  After  passing  Djibel-el-Zeil  the 
harbour  of  Myos  Hormus  presents  itself,  anciently  selected 
by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  in  preference  to  Suez.  For  a con- 
siderable period  this  was  the  emporium  of  the  Arabian 
trade,  until,  as  we  have  already  stated,  in  the  time  of  the 
Romans  it  was  supplanted  by  Berenice.  Cosseir,  the  Leucos 
Portus  of  the  geographer  Ptolemy,  has  long  given  place  to 
a more  modern  town  of  the  same  name,  which  stands  in 
lat.  26°  7’  N.,  and  long.  34°  4 E.,  and  is  said  to  be  built 
among  hillocks  of  moving  sand.  The  houses  are  formed 
of  clay,  and  the  inhabitants,  in  their  manners  and  features, 
have  a greater  resemblance  to  the  Arabians  of  the  opposite 
shore  than  to  the  native  Egyptians.  It  now  derives  its 
chief  importance  from  being  one  of  the  stations  at  which 
the  pilgrims  assemble  on  their  route  to  the  holy  cities  of 
Mecca  and  Medina,  t 

* Murray’s  Historical  Account  of  Discoveries  and  Travels  in  Africa 
vol.  ii.  p.  182. 

t Ibid.  vol.  ii.  p.  186. 


308 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


CHAPTER  X. 

Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Egyptians. 

Great  Variety  of  Manners  in  Egypt — Funeral  Ceremonies  described  by 
Diodorus — Judgment  pronounced  on  the  Dead — Civil  Suits  in  ancient 
Times— Account  of  Coptic  Baptism— Levantines — Moslem  Marriages; 
Description  by  Mr.  Browne— Interior  of  a Harem — Circassians — 
Ethiopian  Women — Mode  of  Living  among  Turks ; among  Euro- 
peans— Mosques  — Mohammed  Ali  and  Burekhardt — Language  of 
Copts — Religion — Festival  of  Calige — Virgin  offered  to  the  Nile ; a 
similar  Custom  in  India — Female  Mourners  in  Egypt — Dress  of 
Ladies — Amusements  of  Cairo — Reptiles,  Insects,  Nuisances — Anec- 
dote of  Sir  Sidney  Smith— Opinion  of  Denon — Character  of  Egyptian 
Arabs — Houses  — Mode  of  Life  — Barbers — Doctors — Piety — Arabic 
Manuscripts — Serpent-eaters  and  Charmers — Mamlouk  Notions  of 
Respectability. 

In  a country,  the  inhabitants  of  which  acknowledge  so 
many  different  descents,  the  manners  and  customs  must 
partake  of  an  equal  variety.  The  habits  of  the  Moslem,  for 
example,  can  have  little  resemblance,  to  those  of  the  Copt, 
the  Mamlouk,  the  Bedouin,  or  the  Jew  ; for  in  points  where 
hereditary  attachments  do  not  interfere,  the  authority  of 
religion  continues  to  perpetuate  a distinction.  Our  best 
guides  as  to  modern  Egypt  are  Mr.  Browne  and  Dr.  Hume, 
both  of  whom  were  a considerable  time  resident  in  the 
country,  and  well  qualified  by  their  knowledge  of  society  to 
supply  an  intelligible  account  of  what  fell  under  their  ob- 
servation. In  regard  to  the  more  ancient  periods,  it  is 
obvious  that  we  do  not  possess  sufficient  information  of  do- 
mestic life  from  which  to  furnish  a narrative  that  might 
prove  agreeable  to  the  general  reader,  who  cannot  be  sup- 
posed to  take  much  interest  in  the  details  of  a superstitious 
worship,  or  in  the  opinions  of  a mystical  philosophy.  We 
shall  therefore  confine  ourselves  to  a single  extract  from 
Diodorus  Siculus,  relative  to  the  funeral  ceremonies  which 
were  observed  in  the  days  of  the  Pharaonic  dynasty.  He 
tells  us  that  a talent  of  silver — 450 1. — was  sometimes  ex- 
pended in  performing  the  last  offices  to  a distinguished 
individual, 


OF  THE  EGYPTIANS. 


333 


The  relatives  of  the  deceased,  says  he,  announce  to  the 
judges  and  to  all  the  connexions  of  the  family  the  time  ap- 
pointed for  the  ceremony,  which  includes  the  passage  of  th» 
defunct  over  the  lake  or  canal  of  the  Nome  to  which  he 
belonged.  Two-and-forty  judges  are  then  collected,  and 
arranged  on  a semicircular  bench,  which  is  situated  on  the 
bank  of  the  canal ; the  boat  is  prepared,  and  the  pilot,  who 
is  called  by  the  Egyptians  Charon , is  ready  to  perform  his 
office  ; whence  it  is  said  that  Orpheus  borrowed  the  mytho- 
logical character  of  this  personage.  But  before  the  coffin 
is  put  into  the  boat,  the  law  permits  any  one  who  chooses 
to  bring  forward  his  accusations  against  the  dead  person  ; 
and  if  it  is  proved  that  his  life  was  criminal  the  funeral  rites 
are  prohibited  ; while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  charges  are 
not  substantiated,  the  accuser  is  subjected  to  a severe  pun- 
ishment. If  there  are  no  insinuations  against  the  deceased, 
or  if  they  have  been  satisfactorily  repelled,  the  relations 
cease  to  give  any  further  expression  to  their  grief,  and  pro- 
ceed to  pronounce  suitable  encomiums  on  his  good  principles 
and  humane  actions  ; asserting,  that  he  is  about  to  pass  a 
happy  eternity  with  the  pious  in  the  regions  of  Hades. 
The  body  is  then  deposited  in  the  catacomb  prepared  for  it 
with  becoming  solemnity.* 

This  narrative  is  confirmed  by  various  pictorial  repre- 
sentations still  preserved,  which  exhibit  the  forty-two  judges 
performing  the  duty  here  assigned  to  them,  as  well  as  by 
certain  inscriptions  which  distinctly  allude  to  the  same 
remarkable  custom.  Hence  is  likewise  established  the 
opinion,  conveyed  by  several  of  the  Greek  historians  and 
philosophers,  that  the  ancient  Egyptians  believed  in  a future 
state  of  reward  and  punishment. 

In  civil  suits,  according  to  the  same  author,  the  number 
of  judges  was  only  thirty  ; and  it  is  worthy  of  special  notice, 
as  bearing  some  affinity  to  a usage  well  known  in  a neigh- 
bouring nation,  that  their  president  wore  a breastplate 
adorned  with  jewels,  which  was  called  Truth.  The  eight 
books  of  the  laws  were  spread  open  in  court ; the  pleadings 
of  the  advocates  were  exclusively  conducted  in  writing,  in 
order  that  the  feelings  of  the  judges  might  not  be  improperly 
biassed  by  the  too  energetic  eloquence  of  an  impassioned 


Diodcr.  Sicul.  His:,  lib.  L cap.  92. 


310 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


orator.  The  president  delivered  the  sentence  of  his  col- 
leagues by  touching  the  successful  party  with  the  mysterious 
symbol  of  truth  and  justice  which  adorned  his  person.* 

Dr.  Hume  relates,  that  when  at  Rosetta  h6  and  a friend 
were  invited  by  a Coptic  merchant  to  witness  the  christen- 
ing erf  a child.  On  entering  they  were  received  by  the  lady 
of  the  house  with  great  civility.  She  poured  a little  per- 
fumed rose-water  into  their  hands  from  a bottle  covered 
with  silver  filigree  of  very  fine  work ; and  as  they  passed 
into  the  room  they  were  sprinkled  over  with  rose-water. 
This  was  found  to  be  a common  custom  in  all  Coptic  and 
Levantine  houses  when  a person  makes  a visit  of  ceremony. 
The  apartment  into  which  they  were  introduced  was  in  the 
highest  floor,  where  was  a table  covered  with  all  kinds 
of  sweetmeats  and  fruits.  The  mistress  of  the  family  and 
her  sister,  also  a married  lady,  with  her  husband  and  other 
guests,  soon  made  their  appearance.  The  infant  was  com- 
pletely swathed.  The  ceremony  was  performed  by  a 
Coptic  priest,  according  to  a service  which  he  read  from  a 
manuscript  ritual ; which,  if  we  may  trust  to  the  descrip- 
tion given  by  Pococke,  consists  in  plunging  the  child  three 
times  into  water,  after  which  it  is  confirmed,  and  receives 
the  other  sacrament, — that  is,  the  minister  dips  his  finger 
in  consecrated  wine  and  puts  it  to  the  infant’s  mouth. f 
Having  mentioned  the  Levantines,  we  may  add  that  the 
people  who  go  by  this  name  are  the  descendants  of  Franks 
born  in  Egypt  and  Syria,  and  that  they  are  thereby  distin- 
guished from  the  natives  of  European  countries.  The 
ladies  of  this  class  imitate  the  Arabs  in  dying  their  eye- 
lashes, eyebrows,  and  hair  with  a dark  colour,  and  dress  in 
the  costume  of  the  higher  order  of  that  description  of  society. 

The  Moslem  marriages  are  always  regulated  by  the  elder 
females,  the  bridegroom  seldom  seeing  the  bride  until  the 
day  of  their  union.  It  is  merely  a civil  contract  between 
their  mutual  friends,  and  signed  by  the  young  man  and  his 
father.  There  is  a procession  consisting  of  many  persons, 
male  and  female,  who  accompany  the  young  lady  to  the 
house  of  her  future  husband,  where  she  is  received  by  her 
female  friends.  As  soon  as  the  ceremony  is  performed  the 

* Philosoph.  Trans.,  1819 ; Supplement  to  Ency.  Brit.,  vol.  iv.  p.  jg, 

f Walpole’s  Memoirs,  p.  400;  Pococke’s  Travels,  vol.  i.  p,  246 


OF  THE  EGYPTIANS. 


311 


women  raise  a shout  of  congratulation,  which  is  repeated 
at  intervals  during  the  entertainment  that  follows.  After 
this  burst  of  joy  they  make  another  procession  through  the 
streets,  the  females  all  veiled ; and  a person  mounted  on  a 
horse  richly  caparisoned  carries  a red  handkerchief  fixed  to 
the  end  of  a pole  after  the  fashion  of  a military  banner. 
They  then  return  to  the  house,  where  they  pass  the 
remainder  of  the  day  and  part  of  the  night  in  feasting, 
looking  at  dancing-girls,  and  listening  to  singing-men. 

Mr.  Browne,  who  witnessed  the  marriage  of  the  daughter 
of  Ibrahim  Bey,  describes  it  in  the  following  terms  : — “ A 
splendid  equipage  was  prepared  in  the  European  form  of  a 
coach  drawn  by  two  horses  and  ornamented  with  wreaths 
of  artificial  flowers,  in  which  a beautiful  slave  from  the 
harem,  personating  the  bride  (whose  features  were  very 
plain),  was  carried  through  the  principal  streets  of  Cairo. 
The  blinds  of  the  coach  were  drawn  up,  and  the  fair  deputy 
sat  concealed.  The  procession  was  attended  by  some  beys, 
several  officers,  and  Mamlouks,  and  ended  at  the  house 
of  the  bridegroom,  who  received  her  from  the  carriage  in 
his  arms.”  In  general  at  Cairo,  the  bride,  who  is  com- 
pletely veiled,  walks  under  a canopy  supported  by  two 
women  to  the  house  of  the  bridegroom.  He  adds,  that  the 
ladies  of  the  capital  are  not  tall  but  well  formed.  The 
upper  ranks  are  tolerably  fair,  in  which  and  in  fatness  con- 
sist the,  chief  praises  of  beauty  in  the  Egyptian  climate. 
They  marry  at  fourteen  or  fifteen,  and  at  twenty  are  past 
their  prime.  For  what  reason  the  natives  of  hot  climates 
ordinarily  prefer  women  of  large  persons,  he  acknowledges 
that  he  was  not  able  to  discover.  Nevertheless  the  Coptic 
ladies  have  interesting  features,  large  black  eyes,  and  a 
genteel  figure.* 

•Speaking  of  the  original  inhabitants  of  Egypt,  this  author 
confirms  the  opinion  given  by  recent  travellers  in  opposition 
to  that  supported  by  Malte  Brun,  and  obviously  borrowed 
from  Volney.  He  admits  that  there  is  a peculiarity  of 
feature  common  to  all  the  Copts,  but  asserts  that  neither 
in  countenance  nor  personal  form  is  there  any  resemblance 
to  the  negro.  Their  hair  and  eyes  are  indeed  of  a dark  hue, 
and  the  former  is  often  curled,  though  not  in  a greater 

* Travels  in  Africa,  Egypt,  and  Syria,  p.  76. 


312 


manners  and  customs 


degree  than  is  usually  seen  among  Europeans.  The  nose 
is  generally  aquiline,  and  though  the  lips  be  sometimes 
thick,  they  are  by  no  means  generally  so ; and,  on  the 
whole,  he  concludes  a strong  resemblance  may  be  traced 
between  the  form  of  visage  in  the  modem  Copts  and  that 
presented  in  the  ancient  mummies,  paintings,  and  statues. 

Dr.  Hume  was  admitted  into  the  harem  of  Hassan  Bey, 
and  saw  three  of  its  inmates.  They  were  seated  in  a small 
room,  on  the  sides  of  which  was  a divan  or  sofa  covered 
with  crimson  satin, — a Turkey  earpet  being  spread  on  the 
middle  of  the  floor.  The  crimson  satin  w as  fancifully  em- 
broidered with  silver  flowers.  The  ladies  wore  white 
turbans  of  muslin,  and  their  faces  were  concealed  with  long 
veils,  which  in  fact  wTere  only  large  white  handkerchiefs 
thrown  carelessly  over  them.  When  they  go  abroad  they 
wear  veils  like  the  Arab  women.  Their  trousers  were  of 
red  and  white  striped  satin,  very  wide  but  drawn  together 
at  the  ankle  with  a silk  cord,  and  tied  under  their  breasts 
with  a girdle  of  scarlet  and  silver.  Something  like  a w hite 
silk  shirt  with  loose  sleeves  and  open  at  the  breast  was 
next  the  skin.  Over  all  was  thrown  a pelisse  ; one  of  them 
wore  light  blue  satin,  spangled  with  small  silk  leaves,  while 
the  two  others  were  decked  in  pink  satin  and  gold. 

“We  were  treated  with  coffee,  and  were  fanned  by  the 
ladies  themselves  wTith  large  fans,  a perfume  being  at  the 
same  time  scattered  through  the  room.  1 his  was  com- 
posed of  rose-water,  a great. quantity  of  which  is  made  in 
F ay oum. ' They  were  reserved  at  first,  but  after  conversing 
with  the  Mamlouk  who  attended  me  they  were  less  careful 
to  conceal  their  faces.  Their  beauty  did  not  equal  what  I 
had  anticipated  from  the  fineness  of  their  skins.  They 
were  inclined  to  corpulence ; their  faces  were  round  and 
inexpressive,  but  the  neck,  bosom,  arms,  and  hands  were 
of  great  fairness  and  delicacy.  My  dress  seemed  to  amuse 
them  very  much,  and  they  examined  every  part  of  it,  par- 
ticularly my  boots  and  spurs.  When  drinking  coffee  with 
the  Turkish  officers. I chanced  to  forget  my  handkerchief; 
and  as  I seemed  to  express  a desire  to  find  it,  one  of  the 
ladies  took  off  a handkerchief  from  her  head  and  presented 
it  to  me,  having  first  perfumed  it.”* 


* Walpole’s  Memoirs,  p.  393. 


OF  THE  EGYPTIANS. 


313 


After  this  visit,  Dr.  Hume,  expressing  to  a Mamlouk 
some  curiosity  in  respect  to  the  female  establishment  of 
Hassan  Bey,  was  informed  that  the  whole  amounted  to 
more  than  twenty,  several  of  whom  were  Circassians  ; but 
he  added  that  his  master  had  in  reality  only  one  wife,  who 
was  not  among  the  ladies  to  whom  the  stranger  was  intro- 
duced, and  that  all  the  others  were  simply  her  attendants. 
This  arrangement  is  more  general  than  is  commonly 
believed,  for  even  the  Arabs  usually  content  themselves 
with  one  wife  ; or,  when  they  have  two,  the  second  is 
always  subservient  to  her  predecessor  in  the  affairs  of  the 
house. 

The  Ethiopian  women  brought  to  Egypt  for  sale,  though 
black,  are  exceedingly  beautiful ; their  features  being  per- 
fectly regular,  and  their  eyes  full  of  fire.  A great  number 
of  them  had  been  purchased  by  the  French  during  their 
stay  in  the  country,  who  were  anxious  to  dispose  of  them 
previously  to  their  departure  for  Europe  ; and  it  was  the 
custom  to  bring  them  to  the  common  market-place  in  the 
camp,  sometimes  in  boys’  clothes,  at  other  times  in  the 
gaudiest  female  dress  of  the  Parisian  fashion.  The  price 
was  generally  from  sixty  to  a hundred  dollars,  while  Arab 
women  could  be  purchased  as  low  as  ten.  The  Circassians 
at  all  times  are  exposed  to  sale  in  particular  markets  or 
khans,  and  occasionally  bring  large  sums  of  money  to  their 
owners.  Their  beauty,  however,  is  not  very  highly  prized 
by  Europeans,  who  are  at  a loss  to  account  for  those  lofty 
descriptions  which  fill  the  pages  of  oriental  romance,  and 
ascribe  all  the  attractions  of  female  form  to  the  natives 
of  one  favoured  portion  of  Asia. 

In  the  house  of  a Turk  the  apartments  for  the  women 
are  furnished  with  the  finest  and  most  expensive  articles  ; 
but  those  of  the  men  are  only  remarkable  for  a plain  style 
of  neatness.  They  breakfast  before  sunrise,  make  their 
second  meal  at  ten,  and  their  third  at  five  in  the  afternoon  ; 
using  at  all  times  an  abundance  of  animal  food.  A large 
dish  of  pilau  appears  in  the  middle  of  the  table,  surrounded 
with  small  dishes  of  meat,  fish,  and  fowl.  Their  drink  is 
confined  to  water,  but  coffee  is  served  immediately  after  the 
meal.  At  the  tables  of  the  great  sherbet  is  introduced ; for 
as  the  manufacture  of  wine  is  not  encouraged  in  Egypt  the 
quantity  that  is  used  by  the  Greeks  and  Franks  must  be 


314 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


procured  from  abroad.  The  Egyptians  still  prepare  a fer- 
mented liquor  of  maize,  millet,  barley,  or  rice,  but  it  has 
very  little  resemblance  to  our  ale.  It  is  sufficiently  pleasant 
to  the  taste,  and  of  a clear  light  colour  ; but  being  very 
weak  and  pregnant  with  saccharine  matter,  it  does  not 
keep  fresh  above  a day.  The  native  Christians  distil  for 
themselves  a liquor  known  by  the  general  name  of  araki. 
It  is  made  of  dates,  currants,  or  the  small  grapes  which  are 
imported  from  the  Seven  Islands.  But  the  example  of 
Mohammed  Ali,  who  does  not  disdain  to  drink  wine,  has 
introduced  some  degree  of  laxity  into  the  manners  of  the 
metropolis,  where  there  are  many  who  hold  the  opinion  that 
the  great  wisdom  of  their  pasha  is  entitled  to  equal  respect 
with  the  injunctions  of  their  prophet. 

The  style  of  living  among  Europeans  is  considerably 
different,  but  not  uniform  ; every  consulate  setting  an  ex- 
ample to  the  people  under  its  protection,  and  varying 
according  to  the  seasons  of  the  year.  “ One  cannot  find,” 
says  Mr.  Came,  “ the  comforts  of  an  English  breakfast  at 
Cairo  ; a cup  of  coffee  and- a piece  of  bread  are  ready  at  an 
early  hour  for  whoever  chooses ; at  midday  comes  a luxu- 
rious dinner  of  foreign  cookery,  with  the  wines  of  Europe 
and  fruits  of  the  East ; and  seven  in  the  evening  introduces 
supper, — another  substantial  meal,  though  rather  less  pro- 
fuse than  the  dinner  ; and  by  ten  o’clock  most  of  the  family 
retire.  This  is  not  the  way  of  living  best  adapted  to  the 
climate,  which  seems  to  require  only  a slight  refreshment 
during  the  sultry  hours,  and  the  solid  meal  to  be  reserved 
till  the  cool  of  the  day.  A singular  luxury  in  this  city,  as 
well  as  in  every  other  in  the  East,  is  the  caimac,  or  clouted 
cream,  exactly  the  same  as  that  made  in  Devonshire  and 
Cornwall,  and  manufactured  in  the  same  manner.  It  is  cried 
about  the  streets  fresh  every  morning,  and  is  sold  on  small 
plates  ; and,  in  a place  where  butter  is  never  seen,  it  is  a 
rich  and  welcome  substitute.”*  It  may  be  remarked  in 
passing,  that  except  for  the  purposes  of  cookery  fire  is  never 
used  in  the  houses  of  Cairo,  it  being  found  more  convenient 
to  compensate  the  diminished  temperature  of  the  cold  season 
Dy  an  addition  to  their  clothing  than  by  grates  or  stoves. 

There  are  in  the  same  capital  more  than  three  hundred 

* Carne’s  Letters  from  the  East,  vol.  i.  p.  96. 


OF  THE  EGYPTIANS. 


315 


mosques,  four  or  five  of  which  are  very  splendid,  more  espe- 
cially the  one  dedicated  to  Jama  el  Azhar,  which  is  orna- 
mented with  pillars  of  marble  and  Persian  carpets.  A 
sheik,  being  at  the  same  time  an  ecclesiastic  of  a high  order, 
presides  over  the  establishment,  to  which  an  immense  prop- 
erty was  formerly  attached,  and  which  still  supports  a 
number  of  persons  who  have  the  reputation  of  being  dis- 
tinguished for  profound  skill  in  theology  and  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  Arabic  language.  It  is  furnished  also 
with  an  extensive  collection  of  manuscripts  ; and  lectures 
are  read  on  all  subjects  which  among  Mohammedan  church- 
men continue  to  be  regarded  as  scientific,  although  entirely 
unconnected  with  the  improvements  of  modern  times. 

The  character  of  the  viceroy,  who  labours  under  the  im- 
putation of  being  a freethinker,  has  not  failed  to  operate  a 
certain  effect  on  the  sentiments  of  the  higher  class  of  per- 
sons in  Cairo.  It  is  said  of  him  that  he  values  no  man’s 
religious  opinions  a single  straw  ; as  long  as  they  serve  him 
well,  they  may  be  Guebres,  or  worshippers  of  the  Grand 
Lama.  The  celebrated  traveller  Burckhardt,  with  whom 
he  was  very  fond  of  conversing,  presented  himself  ono  day 
before  him.  “ Pasha,”  he  said,  “ I want  to  go  and  see  ihe 
Holy  City,  and  pray  at  the  Prophet’s  tomb ; give  me  your 
leave  and  firman  for  the  journey.” — “You  go  to  Mecca  and 
our  blessed  Prophet’s  tomb  !”  said  the  prince,  “ that’s  im- 
possible, .Ibrahim  ! you  are  not  qualified  ; you  know  what  I 
mean  ; nor  do  I think  you  are  a true  believer.” — “ But  I 
am,  pasha,”  was  the  reply:  “you  are  mistaken,  I assure 
you  ; I am  qualified,  too,  in  every  respect ; and  as  to  belief, 
have  no  fears  about  that ; tell  me  any  part  of  the  Koran 
that  I will  not  believe  !” — “ Go  to  the  Holy  City,  go,  Ibra- 
him,” said  the  pasha,  laughing  heartily  ; “ I was  not  aware 
you  were  so  holy  a man.  Do  you  think  I’ll  vex  myself  with 
questions  from  the  Koran  1 Go  and  see  the  Prophet’s  tomb, 
and  may  it  enlighten  your  eyes  and  comfort  your  heart!”* 
We  are  rather  surprised  to  find  both  Mr.  Browne  and 
Dr.  Hume  maintaining  that  the  Coptic  language  is  entirely 
extinct,  and  no  longer  used  in  any  part  of  Egypt.  The 
former  relates  that  in  the  Christian  monasteries  the  prayers 
\re  read  in  Arabic,. and  the  epistle  and  gospel  in  Coptic; 

* Came’s  Recollections  of  Travels  in  tho  East,  p.  248, 


316 


manners  and  customs 


observing,  however,  in  regard  to  this  last,  that  the  priest  is 
a mere  parrot  repeating  a dead  letter.  Manuscripts  in  that 
language  are,  nevertheless,  still  found  in  some  of  the  con- 
vents, leave  to  copy  which  might  easily  be  obtained  from 
the  patriarch ; and  by  these  means  a valuable  addition 
would  be  made  to  the  collections  of  M.  Quatremere,  to  whom 
the  scholars  of  Europe  have  been  so  much  indebted.* 

We  have  already  stated  that  the  Coptic  creed  is  heretical 
in  regard  to  the  point  on  which  Eutychius  was  accused  of 
an  erring  faith.  The  moderns,  notwithstanding,  have 
adopted  transubstaniiation,  thereby  approximating  more 
closely  to  the  Roman  belief  than  their  orthodox  neighbours 
of  the  Greek  communion.  They  have,  at  the  same  time, 
adopted  from  the  Mohammedans  the  custom  of  frequent 
prostrations  during  divine  service ; of  individual  prayer  in 
public ; and  various  other  ceremonies  suggested  by  the 
peculiarity  of  their  climate. 

The  festival  of  opening  the  Galige,  or  cutting  the  bank 
of  the  Nile,  is  still  annually  observed  at  Cairo,  and  is  one 
of  the  few  ancient  customs  which  continue  to  identify  the 
inhabitants  of  the  modern  capital  with  their  remotest  ances- 
tors. The  year  in  which  Mr.  Carne  visited  Egypt,  the  16th 
of  August  was  the  day  appointed  for  this  solemnity,  the 
inundation  having  reached  nearly  its  greatest  height.  Ac- 
companied by  some  friends,  he  repaired  about  eight  in  the 
evening  to  the  place,  which  was  a few  miles  distant  from  the 
city,  amid  the  roaring  of  cannon,  illuminations,  and  fire- 
works. The  shores  of  the  Nile,  a long  way  down  from 
Boulak,  were  covered  with  groups  of  people, — some  seated 
beneath  the  large  spreading  sycamores  smoking,  others 
gathered  around  parties  of  Arabs,  who  were  dancing  with 
infinite  gayety  and  pleasure,  and  uttering  loud  exclamations 
of  joy,  affording  an  amusing  contrast  to  the  passionless 
demeanour  and  tranquil  features  of  their  Moslem  oppres- 
sors. Perpetually  moving  over  the  scene,  which  was  illu- 
mined by  the  most  brilliant  moonlight,  were  seen  Albanian 
soldiers  in  their  national  costume,  Nubians  from  the  burn- 
ing clime  of  farther  Egypt,  with  Mamlouks,  Arabs,  and 
Turks. 

* Maillet  remarked,  “ Aujourd’hui  la  langue  Copte  n’y  est  plus  entendue 
par  les  Coptes  mdmes  : le  dernier  qui  l’entendait  eet  rnort  en  ce  siicle.” 
P.24. 


OF  THE  EGYPTIANS. 


317 


At  last  day  broke,  and  soon  after  the  report  of  a cannon 
Announced  that  the  event  so  ardently  wished  for  was  at 
hand.  In  a short  time  the  kiaya  bey,  the  chief  minister  of 
the  pasha,  arrived  with  his  guard,  and  took  his  seat  on  the 
summit  of  the  opposite  bank.  A number  of  Arabs  now 
began  to  dig  down  the  dike  which  confined  the  Nile,  the 
bosom  of  which  was  covered  with  a number  of  pleasure- 
boats  full  of  people,  waiting  to  sail  along  the  canal  through 
the  city.  Before  the  mound  was  completely  demolished, 
the  increasing  dampness  and  shaking  of  the  earth  induced 
the  workmen  to  leave  off.  Several  of  them  then  plunged 
into  the  stream,  and  exerting  all  their  strength  to  push  down 
the  remaining  part,  small  openings  were  soon  made,  and  the 
river  broke  through  with  irresistible  violence ; for  some 
time  it  was  like  the  rushing  of  a cataract. 

According  to  custom,  the  kiaya  bey  distributed  a good 
sum  of  money, — throwing  it  into  the  bed  of  the  canal  below, 
where  a great  many  men  and  boys  scrambled  for  it.  It  was 
an  amusing  scene,  as  the  water  gathered  fast  round  them, 
to  see  them  struggling  and  groping  amid  the  waves  for  the 
coin  ; but  the  violence  of  the  torrent  soon  bore  them  away. 
There  were  some,  indeed,  who  had  lingered  to  the  last,  and 
now  sought  to  save  themselves  by  swimming, — still  buffet- 
ing the  waves,  and  grasping  at  the  money  showered  down, 
and  diving  after  it  as  it  disappeared.  Unfortunately,  this 
sport  costs  a few  lives  every  year,  and  the  author  informs 
us  there  was  one  young  man  drowned  on  the  present 
occasion. 

The  different  vessels,  long  ere  the  fall  had  subsided, 
rushed  into  the  canal,  and  entered  the  city,  their  decks 
crowded  with  all  ranks,  uttering  loud  exclamations  of  joy. 
The  overflowing  of  the  Nile  is  the  richest  blessing  of 
Heaven  to  the  Egyptians  ; and  as  it  finds  its  way  gradually 
into  various  parts  of  Cairo,  the  inhabitants  flock  to  drink  of 
it,  to  wash  in  it,  and  to  rejoice  in  its  progress.  The  vast 
square  called  the  Birket,  which  a few  hours  before  presented 
the  appearance  of  a dusty  neglected  field,  was  now  turned 
into  a beautiful  scene,  being  covered  with  an  expanse  of 
water,  out  of  the  bosom  of  which  arose  the  finest  sycamore 
trees.  The  sounds  of  joy  and  festivity,  of  music  and  songs, 
were  now  heard  all  over  the  city  with  cries  of  “ Allah, 
D d 2 


318 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


Allah!”  and  thanks  to  the  Divine  bounty  for  so  inesti- 
mable a benefaction.* 

It  is  admitted  on  all  hands  that,  long  before  its  arrival, 
Cairo  stands  greatly  in  need  of  this  annual  ablution.  Dr. 
Clarke,  at  whose  presence  all  the  plagues  of  Egypt  were 
revived  in  more  than  their  original  horrors,  consents  to 
acknowledge,  that  when  the  canal  was  filled  with  its  muddy 
water,  the  prodigious  number  of  gardens  gave  to  the  capital 
so  pleasing  an  appearance,  and  the  trees  growing  in  those 
gardens  were  so  new  to  the  eye  of  a European,  that  for  a 
moment  he  forgot  the  innumerable  abominations  of  the 
dirtiest  city  in  the  whole  earth.  But  he  adds,  that  the 
boasted  lakes,  or  rather  mudpools,  into  which  the  w aters 
of  the  river  are  received,  particularly  the  famous  Esbequier 
Birket,  would  certainly  be  considered  nuisances  in  any  part 
of  the  civilized  world. f 

A tradition  prevails,  that  in  ancient  times  a virgin  was 
annually  sacrificed  to  the  Nile,  in  order  to  propitiate  the 
deity  who  presided  over  its  waters,  and  who,  it  was  ima- 
gined with  the  view  of  obtaining  the  wonted  victim,  occa- 
sionally postponed  or  diminished  the  periodical  flood.  The 
only  memorial  now  existing  of  this  obsolete  practice  appears 
in  the  form  of  a pile  or  statue  of  mud,  called  Anis  or  the 
Bride,  which  is  raised  every  year  between  the  dike  of  the 
canal  and  the  river,  and  is  afterward  carried  away  by  the 
current  when  the  embankment  is  broken  down.  Moreri,  Mur- 
tadi,  and  other  writers,  allude  to  the  same  custom,  and  assign 
the  motive  already  suggested  for  its  introduction  among  the 
Egyptian  idolaters.  “ They  imagined,”  says  the  former, 
“ that  their  god  Serapis  was  the  author  of  the  marvellous 
inundation  of  the  Nile,  and  accordingly,  when  it  was 
delayed,  they  sacrificed  to  him  a young  girl.  This  barbarous 
devotion  was  abolished,  if  we  may  believe  the  Arabian 
historians,  by  the  Caliph  Omar.”t 

It  has  become  usual  to  resolve  this  statement  into  a 
mythological  legend  or  astronomical  emblem ; but  the  preva- 
lence of  a similar  custom  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  and 
more  especially  in  India,  compels  us  to  adhere  to  the  literal 
import  of  the  narrative,  however  abhorrent  it  may  be  to  all 

* Carrie’s  Letters,  vol.  i.  p.  99.  t Travels,  vol.  v.  p.  108. 

J Diction.,  vol.  vii.  p.  1041. 


OF  THE  EGYPTIANS. 


319 


the  sentiments  of  modem  times.  For  example,  Bishop 
Heber  relates  that  the  images  of  a man  and  a woman,  used 
in  a Hindoo  festival,  were  thrown  into  the  Ganges  ; and  he 
describes  it  “ as  the  relic  of  a hideous  custom  which  still 
prevails  in  Assam,  and  was  anciently  practised  in  Egypt, 
of  flinging  a youth  and  maiden,  richly  dressed,  annually  into 
their  sacred  river.  That  such  a custom  formerly  existed 
in  India  is,  I believe,  a matter  of  pretty  uniform  tradition.”* 
Some  indistinct  recollection  of  a similar  fact  appears  to 
have  reached  the  time  of  Ovid,  who  relates,  that  after  nine 
years’  drought,  it  was  suggested  that  this  grievous  calamity 
might  be  averted  by  the  sacrifice  of  a human  being,  a 
stranger  in  the  land, — a corrupted  allusion,  perhaps,  to  the 
events  which  happened  in  the  days  of  the  patriarch  Joseph. 

Dicitur  jEgyptios  caruisse  juvantibus  arva 
Imbribus,"  atque  annos  sicca  fuisse  novem. 

Cum  Thraseas  Busirim  adiit,  monstratque  piari 
Hospitis  effuso  sanguine  posse  Jovem. 

The  practice  of  hiring  women  to  lament  for  the  dead  is 
still  observed  at  Cairo,  to  the  great  annoyance  of  the  Frank 
population,  whose  ears  reject  the  monotonous  accents  in 
which  this  nightly  dirge  is  performed.  Upon  inquiry  it  was 
found  that  the  wealthier  the  family  the  more  numerous  were 
the  hired  mourners,  and  of  course  the  louder  the  lamenta- 
tion ; that  these  singers  exhibited  the  most  frightful  dis- 
tortions, having  their  hair  dishevelled,  their  clothes  torn, 
and  their  countenances  disfigured  with  paint  and  dirt, — that 
they  were  relieved  at  intervals  by  other  women  similarly 
employed, — and  that  the  ceremony  might  thus  be  continued 
to  any  length.  A principal  part  of  their  art  consists  in 
mingling  with  their  howling  such  affecting  expressions  of 
praise  or  pity  as  may  excite  the  tears  of  the  relations  who 
are  collected  around  the  corpse. f 
* Journal,  vol.  ii.  p.  391. 

t Clarke’s  Travels,  vol.  v.  p.  105.  It  is  evident,  as  Dr.  Clarke  ob- 
serves, that  this  custom,  like  the  caoineadh  of  the  Irish  and  the  funeral- 
cry  of  other  nations,  are  remains  of  ceremonies  practised  in  honour  of 
the  dead  in  almost  every  country  of.  the  earth.  They  are  the  same  that 
Homer  describes  at  the  death  of  Hector,  and  they  are  frequently  alluded 
to  in  the  sacred  Scrip! ures  : “ Call  for  the  mourning  women,  that  they 
may  come  ; and  send  for  cunning  women,  that  they  may  come : and  let 
them  make  haste,  and  take  up  a wailing  for  us,  that  our  eyes  may  run 
down  with  tears,  and  our  eyelids  gush  out  with  waters  ” — Jer.  ix.  17  18 


3*20 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


The  females  of  Cairo  are  often  seen  in  the  public  streets 
riding  upon  asses  and  mules  : they  sit  in  the  masculine 
attitude,  like  the  women  of  Naples  and  other  parts  of  Italy. 
Their  dress  consists  of  a hood  and  cloak  extending  to  the 
feet  with  a stripe  of  white  calico  in  front,  concealing  the 
face  and  breast,  but  having  two  small  holes  for  the  eyes 
In  this  disguise,  if  a man  were  to  meet  his  own  wife  or 
sister,  he  would  not  be  able  to  recognise  her  unless  she 
spoke  to  him  ; and  this  is  seldom  done,  because  the  sus- 
picious Moslems,  observing  such  an  intercourse,  might  sup- 
pose an  intrigue  to  be  going  on,  in  which  case  they  would 
put  one  if  not  both  of  them  to  death.  Sir  F.  Henniker  com- 
pares a lady  mounted  in  the  way  just  described,  and  wrapped 
up  in  a black  mantle  from  head  to  foot,  to  a coffin  placed 
perpendicularly  on  a horse,  and  covered  with  a pall. 

The  inhabitants  of  Cairo,  fond  of  shows,  like  the  populace 
of  all  great  cities,  amuse  themselves  chiefly  with  feats  of 
bodily  exercise,  such  as  leaping,  rope-dancing,  and  wrest- 
ling matches  ; also  sinking  and  dancing.  They  have  buf- 
foons, whose  rude  pleasantries  and  stale,  jests  excite  the 
ready  laugh  among  an  ignorant  and  corrupt  people.  The 
almehs,  or  female  improvisatores,  who  amuse  the  rich  with 
the  exercise  of  their  talent,  differ  from  such  as  exhibit  to 
the  multitude.  They  come  to  relieve  the  solitude  of  the 
harem,  where  they  teach  the  women  new  tunes,  and  repeat 
poems  which  excite  interest  from  the  representations  which 
they  give  of  national  manners.  They  initiate  the  Egyptian 
ladies  in  the  mysteries  of  their  art,  and  teach  them  to  prac- 
tise dances  of  rather  an  unbecoming  character.  Some  of 
these  females  have  cultivated  minds  and  an  agreeable  con- 
versation, speaking  their  native  language  w’ith  purity. 
Their  poetical  habits  make  them  familiar  with  the  softest 
and  best-sounding  expressions,  and  their  recitations  are 
made  with  considerable  grace.  They  are  called  in  on  all 
festive  occasions.  During  meals  they  are  seated  in  a sort 
of  desk,  where  they  sing.  Then  they  come  into  the  draw- 
ing-room to  perform  their  dances,  or  pantomimic  evolutions, 
of  which  love  is  generally  the  groundwork.  They  now  lay 
aside  the  veil,  and  with  it  the  modesty  of  their  sex.* 

W e shall  take  no  farther  notice  of  the  disgraceful  scenes 


* Malte  Brun.  iv.  p.  72. 


or  THE  EGYPTIANS. 


321 


which  too  often  accompany  the  exhibitions  of  these  dancing- 
women,  nor  shall  we  draw  aside  the  veil  which  conceals 
from  the  common  eye  the  sensualities  of  the  Egyptian 
capital.  It  would  be  almost  equally  disagreeable  to  copy 
the  descriptions  given  by  several  British  travellers  of  the 
sufferings  inflicted  upon  the  senses  and  imagination  of  a 
European  by  the  reptiles,  flies,  fleas,  and  other  more  nau- 
seous vermin.  Dr.  Clarke  informs  us  that  a singular  species 
of  lizard  made  its  appearance  in  every  chamber,  having  cir- 
cular membranes  at  the  extremity  of  its  feet,  which  gave  it 
such  tenacity  that  it  walked  upon  window-panes  of  glass, 
or  upon  the  surfaces  of  pendent  mirrors.  This  revolting 
sight  was  common  in  every  apartment,  whether  in  the 
houses  of  the  rich  or  of  the  poor.  At  the  same  time  such 
a plague  of  flies  covered  all  things  with  their  swarms,  that 
it  was  impossible  to  eat  without  having  persons  to  stand  by 
every  table  with  feathers  or  flappers  to  drive  them  away. 
Liquors  could  not  be  poured  into  a glass  ; the  mode  of 
drinking  was,  to  keep  the  mouth  of  every  bottle  closed  till 
the  moment  it  was  applied  to  the  lips,  and  instantly  to  cover 
it  with  the  palm  of  the  hand  when  removing  it  to  any 
one  else. 

The  utmost  attention  to  cleanliness,  by  a frequent  change 
of  every  article  of  wearing  apparel,  could  not  prevent  the 
attacks  of  vermin,  which  seemed  to  infest  even  the  air  of 
the  place.  A gentleman  made  his  appearance,  to  receive  a 
company  whom  he  had  invited  to  dinner,  with  lice  swarming 
upon  his  clothes  ; and  the  only  explanation  he  could  give 
as  to  the  cause  was,  that  he  had  sat  for  a short  time  in  one 
of  the  boats  upon  the  canal.  Nay,  it  is  ascertained  that 
certain  winds  cover  even  the  sands  of  the  wilderness  with 
this  abominable  insect.  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  on  one  occasion, 
apprehending  the  effects  of  sleeping  a night  in  the  village 
of  Etko,  preferred  a bed  on  the  bare  surface  of  the  adjoining 
desert ; but,  so  far  from  escaping  the  evil  he  had  dreaded, 
he  found  himself  in  the  morning  entirely  covered  with  that 
mysterious  plague  over  which  the  magicians  of  Pharaoh 
had  no  power.  In  regard  to  frogs,  of  which  the  Nile  at 
one  period  of  its  annual  increase  seems  to  be  almost  ex- 
clusively composed  ; the  “ boils  breaking  out  with  blains  ;** 
and  ot-her  peculiarities  which  continue  to  afflict  the  land  of 
Ham,  we  must  restrict  ourselves  to  a simple  reference  to 


322 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


such  writers  as  Drs.  Clarke,  Shaw,  and  Poc.ocke,  who 
groan  over  the  long  catalogue  of  human  sufferings  ; or  to 
Sir  F.  Henniker,  and  other  facetious  tourists,  who  convert 
these  short  afflictions  into  a subject  of  merriment.* 

The  French  were  less  difficult  to  please,  and  much  more 
open  to  favourable  impressions.  Denon,  for  example, 
speaks  of  the  pleasurable  sensations  daily  excited  by  the 
delicious  temperature  of  Cairo,  causing  Europeans,  whc 
arrive  with  the  intention  of  spending  a few  months  in  the 
place,  to  remain  during  the  rest  of  their  lives  without  ever 
persuading  themselves  to  leave  it.  Few  persons,  however, 
with  whom  our  countrymen  associate,  are  disposed  to  ac- 
quiesce in  this  opinion.  Those,  indeed,  who  are  desirous 
of  uninterrupted  repose,  or  who  are  able  to  endure  the  in- 
variable dulness  which  prevails  in  every  society  to  which 
strangers  are  admitted,  may  perhaps  tolerate  without  mur- 
muring a short  residence  in  the  midst  of  what  Dr.  Clarke 
calls  a “ dull  and  dirty  city.”  The  effect,  it  is  admitted, 
whether  it  be  of  climate,  of  education,  or  of  government, 
is  the  same  among  all  the  settlers  in  Egypt  except  the 
Arabs, — a disposition  to  exist  without  exertion  of  any  kind, 
— to  pass  whole  days  upon  beds  and  cushions, — smoking 
and  counting  beads.  This  is  what  Maillet  termed  the  true 
Egyptian  taste  ; and  that  it  may  be  acquired  by  residing 
among  the  native  inhabitants  of  Cairo  is  evident,  from  the 
appearance  exhibited  by  Europeans  who  have  passed  some 
years  in  that  city.f 

The  lower  orders  of  Egyptian  Arabs  are  described  as  a 
quiet,  inoffensive  people,  with  many  good  qualities  ; and 
they  are  upon  the  whole  more  active  in  agricultural  employ- 
ments than  we  should  be  led  to  imagine  from  the  habits  of 
the  better  class  of  them  in  towns,  who  pass  their  time  in 
listless  indolence.  Their  dress  consists  simply  of  a pair 
of  loose  drawers,  blue  or  white,  with  a long  blue  tunic, 
which  serves  to  cover  them  from  the  neck  to  the  ankle,  and 
a small  red  woollen  scull-cap,  round  which  they  occasion- 

* “ The  dust  of  the  earth  became  lice  upon  man  and  upon  beast 
throughout  all  the  land  of  Egypt.  This  application  of  the  words  of 
sacred  Scripture,”  says  Dr.  Clarke,  44  affords  a literal  statement  of 
existing  evils ; such  a one  as  the  statistics  of  the  country  do  now 
warrant.” 

t La  Vraie  Genie  Egyptienne. 


OF  THE  EGYPTIANS. 


323 


ally  wind  a long  white  stripe  of  the  same  material.  The 
articles  of  furniture  in  their  houses  are  extremely  few. 
“ The  rooms  of  all  people  of  decent  rank,”  says  Dr.  Hume, 
“have  a low  sofa,  called  a divan,  extending  completely 
round  three  sides,  and  sometimes  to  ever}T  part  of  them 
except  the  doorway ; but  it  is  most  commonly  confined  to 
the  upper  end  of  the  chamber.  On  this  divan  the  hours 
not  devoted  to  exercise  or  business  are  invariably  passed. 
It  is  about  nine  inches  from  the  floor,  and  covered  with 
mattresses  ; the  back  is  formed  by  large  cushions  placed  all 
along  the  wall  so  close  as  to  touch  each  other,  and  more  or 
less  ornamented  according  to  the  wealth  or  taste  of  the 
owner.  The  beds  are  generally  laid  on  wickerwork  strongly 
framed,  made  of  the  branches  of  the  date-tree,  or  consist 
of  mattresses  placed  on  a platform  at  the  end  of  the  room. 
For  their  meals  they  have  a very  low  table,  round  which 
they  squat  on  the  mats  covering  the  floor ; and  in  houses 
of  repute  I have  sometimes  seen  this  table  made  of  copper 
thihly  tinned  over.  The  mats  used  in  Egypt  are  made  of 
straw,  or  of  the  flags  attached  to  the  branches  of  the  date- 
tree,  and  are  very  neatly  worked  in  figures,  such  as  squares, 
ovals,  and  other  forms,  with  fanciful  borders.  They  are 
very  durable,  but  harbour  numbers  of  fleas,  with  which  all 
the  houses  swarm,  particularly  in  hot  weather.”* 

The  poorer  sort  of  these  Arabs  seldom  can  afford  to  eat 
animal  food,  but  subsist  chiefly  on  rice  made  into  a pilau, 
and  moistened  with  the  rancid  butter  of  the  country.  Some- 
times they  make  a hearty  meal  on  boiled  horse-beans 
steeped  in  oil.  The  date  supplies  them  with  sustenance  a 
part  of  the  year;  and  in  summer  the  vast  quantities  of 
gourds  and  melons  which  are  then  produced,  place  within 
their  reach  an  agreeable  variety.  Their  drink  is  the  milk 
of  buffaloes,  or  the  water  of  the  Nile  purified  and  preserved 
in  cisterns.  None  but  the  higher  orders  or  those  of  disso- 
lute lives  ever  taste  wine  ; and  hence,  although  grapes  grow 
abundantly  in  several  parts  of  Egypt,  only  a very  small 
portion  is  manufactured  into  that  exhilarating  beverage 
which  is  forbidden  to  every  true  believer  in  the  Prophet. 

Some  particular  traits  distinguish  the  Egyptian  Arabs 
from  other  orientals.  A country  frequently  laid  under 

* Walpole’s  Memoirs,  p.  386. 


324 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


water  makes  the  art  of  swimming  a valuable  acquisition. 
The  children  leam  it  at  play  ; even  the  girls  become  fond 
of  it,  and  are  seen  swimming  in  flocks  from  village  to  vil- 
lage with  all  the  dexterity  of  the  fabled  nymphs.  At  the 
festival  of  the  opening  of  the  canals,  several  professional 
swimmers  perform  a mock  fight  in  the  water,  and  land  to 
attack  an  enemy  in  presence  of  the  pasha.  Their  evolu- 
tions are  executed  with  surprising  vigour.  They  some- 
times float  down  the  river  on  their  backs,  with  a cup  of 
coffee  in  one  hand  and  a pipe  in  the  other,  while  the  feet 
are  tied  together  with  a rope.* 

In  many  parts  the  barbers  are  still  the  only  practitioners 
in  physic  ; and  in  a country  where  every  man’s  head  is 
shaved,  the  professors  of  the  healing  art  cannot  fail  to  be 
numerous.  Their  knowledge  is  of  course  extremely  con- 
fined. They  perform  a few  surgical  operations,  and  are 
acquainted  with  the  virtues  of  mercury  and  some  standard 
medicines.  The  general  remedy  in  cases  of  fever  and 
other  kinds  of  illness  is  a saphie  from  a priest,  which  con- 
sists of  some  sentence  from  the  Koran  written  on  a small 
piece  of  paper  and  tied  round  the  patient’s  neck.  This,  if 
the  sick  man  recovers,  he  carefully  preserves  by  keeping  it 
constantly  between  his  scull-caps,  of  which  he  generally 
wears  two  or  three.  Saphies  are  very  commonly  used  by 
the  Mohammedans,  being  considered  to  possess  much  effi- 
cacy for  the  body  as  well  as  the  soul,  and  occupy  the  same 
place  in  the  estimation  of  the  superstitious  as  did  the  front- 
lets of  the  Jews  and  the  phylacteries  of  the  early  Chris- 
tians. In  every  bazaar,  however,  some  shops  are  found  in 
which  are  sold  some  of  the  most  common  drugs,  such  as 
opium,  rhubarb,  and  senna,  t 

The  Egyptian  Arabs  are  punctual  in  the  performance  of 
their  religious  duties  at  the  stated  hours  appointed  by  their 
Prophet.  They  are  often  seen,  after  a hard  day’s  work, 
kneeling  with  great  devotion,  offering  up  their  prayers  with 
their  foreheads  at  times  touching  the  ground.  The  respect 
in  which  idiots  are  held  by  the  Mohammedans  is  well 
known ; it  being  imagined  that  these  unfortunate  persons 
are  possessed  by  a benign  spirit,  and  under  the  special  pro- 

' * Malte  Brun,  ir.  p.  108. 
t Dr.  Hume  In  Walpole’s  Memoirs,  p.  389, 


OF  THE  EGYPTIANS. 


325 


tection  of  Heaven.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  these  notions 
of  sanctity  sometimes  lead  to  customs  not  to  be  reconciled 
to  European  ideas  of  decorum ; the  use  of  clothes  being 
thought  inconsistent  with  the  purity  of  mind  and  the  holy 
functions  which  the  superstition  of  an  ignorant  people  has 
attributed  to  the  natural  fool. 

Until  the  present  viceroy  introduced  the  European  press, 
a printed  book  was  a rare  sight  in  Egypt  either-among 
Turks  or  Arabs.  A^class  of  men,  similar  to  the  copyists 
and  caligraphers  of  the  middle  ages,  earned  a livelihood  by 
forming  manuscripts  of  the  Koran  and  other  works  in  high 
reputation,  some  of  which  were  most  beautifully  executed 
in  inks  of  various  colours.  The  notes  were  generally  done 
in  red  or  light  blue.  Dr.  Clarke,  who  made  considerable 
purchases,  informs  us  that  writings  of  celebrity  bear  very 
great  prices,  especially  treatises  on  history,  geography,  and 
astronomy.  The  Mamlouks  are  fonder  of  reading  than  the 
Turks ; and  some  of  their  libraries  in  Cairo  contained 
volumes  valued  at  immense  sums.  This  traveller  obtained 
a transcript  of  the  “ Arabian  Nights,”  which  was  brought 
to  him  in  four  quarto  cases,  containing  one  hundred  and 
seventy-two  tales,  separated  into  one  thousand  and  one 
portions  for  recital  during  the  same  number  of  nights.  This 
valuable  acquisition  was  unfortunately  lost, — an  event 
which  is  the  more  to  be  regretted,  because  many  of  the 
tales  related  to  Syrian  and  Egyptian  customs  and  traditions, 
which  have  not  been  found  in  any  other  copy  of  the  same 
work.* 

A custom  still  prevails  in  Egypt,  which  may  be  traced  to 
the  remotest  times,  as  being  alluded  to  by  Herodotus,  and 
distinctly  mentioned  by  Plinv, — the  practice  of  taming  ser- 
pents,  of  sporting  with  the  bites  of  the  most  poisonous 
vipers,  and  even  of  eating  these  animals  alive.  “ A tumul- 
tuous throng,”  says  Dr.  Clarke,  “passing  beneath  the  win- 
dows of  our  house,  attracted  our  attention  towards  the 
quay ; here  we  s&w  a concourse  of  people  following  men 
apparently  frantic,  who  with  every  appearance  of  convul- 
sive agony  were  brandishing  live  serpents,  and  then  tearing 
them  with  their.teeth ; snatching  them  from  each  other’s 
mouths  with  loud  cries  and  distorted  features,  and  afterward 


* Travels,  vol.  v.  p.  Ill, 

E e 


326 


manners  and  customs,  etc. 


falling  into  the  arms  of  the  spectators  as  if  swooning  ; the 
women  all  the  while  rending  the  air  with  their  lamenta- 
tions.” 

This  singular  power  over  so  dangerous  an  animal  is 
claimed  only  by  one  tribe,  who,  on  account  of  some  signal 
act  of  piety  performed  by  their  ancestors,  are  understood  to 
be  protected  by  the  Prophet  from  any  injury  that  might 
befall  them.  These  persons,  however,  do  not  always  escape ; 
for  the  author  of  the  book  of  Ecclesiasticus  asks,  Who  will 
pity  a charmer  that  is  bitten  by  a serpent  ?'  Forskal  says, 
that  the  leaves  of  the  aristolochia  sempervirens  was  used 
during  forty  days  hy  those  who  wished  to  be  rendered  invul- 
nerable ; and  we  observe  in  the  examination  which  an 
Abyssinian  ecclesiastic  underwent  at  the  instance  of  some 
British  travellers  who  wanted  to  ascertain  the  accuracy  of 
Bruce,  it  is  stated  that  the  plant  must  be  used  at  the  moment 
the  charm  is  performed. 

1 At  Pella,  too,  if  we  may  believe  Lucian,  the  serpents  were 
rendered  so  tame  and  familiar  that  they  were  fed  by  the 
women,  and  slept  with  the  children.  Dr.  Hume  relates, 
that  when  he  lived  at  Alexandria  a nest  of  snakes  was  dis- 
covered in  his  house.  Following  the  advice  of  his  inter- 
preter he  sent  for  one  of  the*  gifted  family,  who  was  an  old 
man,  and  by  trade  a carpenter.  He  prayed  fervently  at  the 
door  a quarter  of  an  hour,  and  at  length,  pale  and  trembling, 
he  ventured  into  the  room ; while  an  English  sailor,  who 
was  employed  as  a servant,  cleared  away  the  rubbish  in 
which  they  were  concealed,  and  killed  them  with  a shovel. 

We  conclude  this  chapter  with  a remark  truly  character- 
istic of  the  manners  of  modern  Egypt,  and  of  the  feelings 
which  were  ingrafted  upon  the  minds  of  the  higher  class 
by  the  long-continued  sway  of  the  Mamlouks.  Before  the 
reign  of  the  present  viceroy,  it  was  customary,  even  among 
a people  rigidly  attached  to  the  distinctions  of  hereditary 
rank,  to  reserve  their  highest  respect  for  the  purchased  slave 
whose  relations  were  unknown,  and  whose  bravery  or  other 
personal  qualities  had  raised  him  to  the  first  honours  in  the 
country.  General  Reynier  mentions  that  he  has  heard  even 
Turkish  officers  say  of  persons  who  occupied  great  posts, 
w He  is  a man  of  the  best  connexions, — he  w as  bought.”* 


Reyaier,  L’Egypte,-  P-  68 > quoted  by  M.  Malts  Brun,  vol.  Iv.  p.  107. 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT, 


327 


CHAPTER  XI. 

The  Natural  History  of  Egypt. 

Geology — Valley  of  the  Nile — Alluvial  Formation — Primitive  Rocka — 
Serpentine — Of  Upper  Egypt— Limestone  Strata— Sandstone  and  Trap 
— Puddingstone — Verde  Antico — Natron  Rocks — Minerals — Precious 
Stones — Ores — Zoology — Camelus  Dromedarius— Giraffe — Civet  Cat 
— Ichneumon — Sarex,  or  Shrew — Jerboa — Hippopotamus — Crocodile ; 
cherished  by  Ancients — Monitor  of  the  Nile— Hyena — Capra  Aigros 
— Ovis  Tragelaphus — Locust  — Birds — Chenelopex — Ostrich — Ibis 
Ardea  ; Ibis  Religiosa — Vulture ; Mistake  of  Bruce — Oriental  Dotter- 
ell — Charadrius  Himantopus— Corvus  iEgyptiacus — Alcedo  iEgyp- 
tiacus— Anas  Nilotic^ — Sterna  Nilotica — The  Pelican — The  Quail,  or 
Tetrao  Coturnix — Fishes — Echencis  Neucrates — Sparus  Niloticus — 
Labrus  Niloticus— The  Perch— Silurus  Clarias — Salmo  Niloticus — 
Tetraodon — Mugil  Cephalus  and  Clupea  Alosa— Plants— Papyrus; 
Uses — Persea — Lotus — Rose-lily— Rhamnus  Lotus — Phcenix  Dacty- 
lifera — Ficus  Sycomorus  — Plantain-tree — Cucumis  Chate — Cucur- 
bita  Lagenaria — Colocasium — Carthamus  Tinctorius— Acacia  ; Gum ; 
Frankincense — Henna — The  Aloe — Zoophytes — Corallines — Red  Co- 
ral— Sponges — Polypes — Madrepores,  Millepores,  Gorgonia  or  Sea-fan. 

SECTION  I. GEOLOGY. 

The  valley  of  the  Nile,  which  taken  by  itself  is  strictly 
an  alluvial  formation,  presents,  nevertheless,  a variety  of 
features  highly  deserving  the  notice  of  the  geologist.  It  is 
bounded  by  two  Chains-  of  hills,  which,  after  gradually 
passing  from  the  primitive  order  of  rocks  into  the  secondary 
and  flcetz-trap,  terminate  in  deposites  belonging  to  the  most 
recent  description  of  stratified  minerals. 

The  district  between  Philoe  and  Es  Souan,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  river,  is  occupied  by  the  northern  extremity  of 
that  granitic  range  which  stretches  into  Nubia ; containing 
a particular  species  of  stone  to  which,  from  the  mixture  of 
a small  portion  of  hornblende,  the  name  of  syenite  is  usually 
given.  It  is  in  this  neighbourhood  that  those  quarries 
are  still  seen  from  which  the  ancients  hewed  the  stupen- 
dous masses  required  for  their  colossal  statues  and  obelisks. 
The  granite  is  occasionally  diversified  by  alternations  of 
gneiss,  porphyry,  clay-slate,  quartz,  and  serpentine,  which 
contain,  as  imbedded  minerals,  a great  variety  of  carnelions 


328 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT. 


and  jaspers.  Serpentine  likewise  occurs  on  the  Arabian 
side,  along  with  beds  of  clay-slate  and  compact  felspar,  and 
has  been  erroneously  described  by  some  authors  as  a green- 
coloured  marble.  There  has  also  been  observed  in  Upper 
Egypt  a true  marble,  or  granular  foliated  limestone,  ex- 
hibiting the  various  hues  of  white,  gray,  yellow,  blue,  and 
red  ; and  which,  when  combined  with  serpentine,  forms  the 
well-known  rock  called  verde  antico. 

This  section  of  the  geological  domain  is  succeeded  towards 
the  north  by  an  argillaceous  sandstone  alternating  with  the 
carbonate  of  lime ; while  the  corresponding  chain  on  the 
Arabian  side  continues  to  display  serpentine  and  granite. 
At  Esneh  the  rocks  become  more  decidedly  calcareous,  re- 
taining the  same  character  till  they  sink  into  the  plain 
■which  bounds  the  lower  division  of  Egypt.  The  steep 
perpendicular  cliffs  which  characterize  this  limestone  for- 
mation give  a monotonous  and  rather  dreary  aspect  to  the 
country,  contrasting  unfavourably  with  the  bolder  and  more 
picturesque  mountains  of  the  south,  which  offer  new  views 
in  rapid  succession,  and  confer  upon  the  landscape  an  agree- 
able variety:  of  beauty  and  magnificence. 

This  limestone  has  a splintery  of  conchoidal  fracture  ; its 
Colour  is  gray  or  variegated  ; and  it  contains  numerous 
petrifactions  of  shells,  corals,  and  fishes.  It  extends  from 
Syene  to  the  Mediterranean  ; and,  in  Lower  Egypt,  reaches 
from  Alexandria  to  the  Red  Sea  in  the  vicinity  of  Suez.  A 
similar  rock  is  discovered  in  the  mountain-district  which 
leads  to  Cosseir,  and  in  the  same  country  there  are  hills  of 
limestone  associated  with  gypsum  or  sulphate  of  lime.  In 
the  valleys  which  intersect  that  elevated  ground,  the  sand 
is  partly  calcareous  and  partly  quartose,  indicating  the 
quality  of  the  strata  from  the  waste  of  which  it  is  formed. 
It  is  said  that  the  ridge  in  question  consists  of  three  kinds 
of  rock  ; the  first  of  which  is  a small-grained  granite  ; the 
second  is  a breccia,  or  puddingstone  of  a particular  sort, 
known  by  the  name  of  breccia  de  verde  ; and  to  this  suc- 
ceeds, for  a space  of  thirty  miles,  a schistose  deposite,  which 
seems  to  be  of  a contemporaneous  formation  with  the  brec- 
cias, since  they  are  connected  by  gradual  transitions,  and 
contain  rounded  masses  of  the  same  substance. 

At  the  wells  of  EJ-Aoosh-Lambazeh  there  occurs  a sin- 
gular chain  of  slaty  mountains,  presenting,  in  their  compo- 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT. 


329 


sition,  rock-crystal  and  steatitic  rocks  ; but  at  the  distance 
of  eight  miles  from  Cosseir  they  suddenly  change  their 
character,  the  greater  part  of  them  appearing  in  the  form 
of  limestone  or  alabaster,  in  strata  lying  nearly  north  and 
south.  Here  are  found  the  remains  of  the  astrea  diluviana  ; 
and  among  the  hills,  considered  by  geologists  as  of  later 
formation,  are  observed  specimens  of  a schistose  structure, 
together  with  porphyries  not  distinctly  characterized.  The 
bottom  of  the  valley,  covered  with  immense  rocky  frag- 
ments, presents  a numberless  variety  of  minerals, — clay- 
slate,  gneiss,  porphyry,  granite,  and  certain  compound  rocks, 
— in  which  are  actynolite,  and  a particular  kind  of  steatite 
containing  nodules  of  schistose  spar.  There  is  besides  a 
new  and  peculiar  substance,  found  also  in  several  spots  of 
the  Desert  of  Sinai,  and  resembling  the  green  shorl  of 
Dauphine.  It  has  not  been  discovered  in  a separate  state, 
but  forms  part  of' the  granites,  the  porphyries,  and  other 
rocks.* 

Greenstone,  or  the  very  common  rock  which  is  composed 
of  hornblende  qhd  felspar,  occurs  in  beds  in  Upper  Egypt. 
It  is  sometimes  porphyritic,  forming  a green-coloured  basis, 
in  which  pale  green  crystals  of  felspar  are  imbedded,  and 
constituting  a beautiful  stone,  recognised  among  mineralo- 
gists as  green  porphyry.  It  is  not  unfrequently  mistaken 
for  the  verde  antico,  which,  as  we  have  already  described,  is 
a compound  of  serpentine  and  granular  limestone  without 
eith^j  hornblende  or  felspar. 

Buf  the  most  remarkable  geological  formation  in  Egypt 
is  that  composed  of  the  carbonate  of  soda,  which  skirts  the 
vaUey  of  the  Natron  Lakes.  The  hills  which  divide  the 
basin,  now  named  from  that  of  the  Waterless  River,  consist 
in  a great  measure  of  this  chymical  compound  mixed  with 
a muriate  of  the  same  substance.  In  the  valley  of  the  Wil- 
derness the  latter  salt  is  found  in  thin  compact  layers  sup- 
ported by  strata  of  gypsum  ; and  also  in  the  other  deserts  it 
occurs  very  frequently  in  a state  of  crystallization,  sometimes 
under  the  sand,  but  more  frequently  on  the  surface. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  our  travellers,  generally  speak 
ing,  have  not  bestowed  that  degree  of  attention  upon  the 
geological  structure  of  Eastern  Africa  which  it  unquestion- 

* M£m.  sur  l’Egypte,  vol.  iii.  p.  255 ; Malte  Brun,  vol.  iv.  p.  29 
E e 2 


330  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT. 

ably  deserves.  Hitherto  no  extensive  series  of  observations 
have  been  made  in  regard  to  the  general  direction  and  dip 
of  the  mountains  in  that  part  of  the  world,  and  hence  the 
relative  positions  of  the  great  rock-formations  remain  very 
imperfectly  known.  We  can  perceive  in  their  narratives 
some  traces  of  the  usual  distinctions  of  mineral  bodies  into 
primitive,  secondary,  floetz,  and  alluvial,  and  are  thereby  led 
to  conclude  that  there  are  in  Egypt  the  same  successions 
and  affinities  which  mark  the  geological  relations  of  these 
substances  in  all  other  portions  of  the  globe  that  have  been 
minutely  examined.  But  there  is  still  a complete  want  of 
Systematic  views  in  all  the  descriptions  and  details  with 
which  we  have  been  hitherto  supplied  ; and  thus  are  we 
Compelled  to  rest  satisfied  with  conjecture  when  we  are 
most,  desirous  to  attain  the  means  of  establishing  a philo- 
sophical principle.* 

Of  the  more  precious  minerals  found  in  Egypt  the  fol- 
lowing are  the  best  known,  and  the  most  interesting  to  the 
common  reader. 

The  topaz  may  still  be  seen  in  an  islanchof  the  Red  Sea, 
called  Zemorget,  or  the  Island  of  Topazes,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  collected  by  some  of  the  ancient  kings. 

The  emerald,  it  has  been  already  mentioned,  was  under- 
stood to  be  procured  in  the  ridge  of  mountains  situated  on 
the  western  shores  of  the  Arabian  Gulf,  and  to  have  been 
made  an  article  of  considerable  commerce  by  the  Romans. 
Bruce  speaks  of  an  island  in  the  same  sea  called  the  ^sland 
of  Emeralds,  but  which,  upon  being  minutely  examined, 
Was  found  to  produce  nothing  more  valuable  than  green- 
coloured  fluor  spar. 

* Chrysoberyl  is  likewise  enumerated  among  the  mineral 
productions  of  Upper  Egypt.  The  rarest  varieties  of  quartz, 
too,  met  with  in  any  part  of  Africa  are  the  Egyptian  avan- 
turine  and  the  rock  crystal  of  the  northern  shores.  Cal- 
cedony  also,  as  well  as  camelion,  have  been  picked  up  on 
either  bank  of  the  Nile,  both  in  the  Upper  and  Lowrer  prov- 
inces. Agate  belongs  to  the  rocks  which  diversify  the 
desert  eastward  of  Cairo ; while  jasper  occurs  in  veins  of  con- 
siderable thickness  in  the  clay-slate  which  bounds  the 
western  valley  between  Esneh  and  Siout. 

There  is  a finer  jasper,  however,  for  which  Egypt  is  cele- 


* Murray’s  Discoveries  in  Africa,  vol. 


Natural  history  of  Egypt. 


331 


brated,  and  which  occurs  abundantly  in  the  sandy  waste 
between  the  capital  and  Suez.  It  has  likewise  been  found 
in  other  parts  below  Beni  Souef,  imbedded  in  a species  of 
conglomerate.  Actynolite,  epidote,  and  hornblende  are 
frequently  detected  in  the  valleys  which  extend  from  the 
Upper  Nile  towards  the  Red  Sea ; to  which  may  be  added 
heavy  spar  or  sulphate  of  barytes. 

The  mountains  contiguous  to  Egypt  have  been  so  im- 
perfectly explored  that  we  are  still  ignorant  as  to  the 
amount  of  their  metallic  treasures.  We  may,  however, 
conclude,  from  the  early  advancement  of  the  arts  among 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Nile,  that  iron  was  not  unknown  to 
them  ; and  thence  proceed  to  the  inference  that  this  ore  was 
found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  great  works  in  which  it  was 
employed.  Their  quarries,  their  obelisks,  their  pyramids, 
and  statues  indicate,  in  a manner  not  to  be  misunderstood, 
that  instruments  of  the  best-tempered  metal  must  have  been 
placed  in  the  hands  of  their  artists. 

Africa  affords  a considerable  quantity  of  gold,  which  is 
always  obtained  in  the  form  of  dust  and  rolled  masses,  and 
is  found  in  the  sand  of  rivers,  or  the  alluvial  soil  of  valleys 
near  a mountain-range.  The  position  of  Egypt  deprives  it 
of  this  source  of  wealth ; but  in  the  countries  above  the 
Cataracts,  especially  in  Kordofan,  there  are  several  tracts 
remarkable  for  the  quantity  of  this  precious  metal  which 
they  afford.  Hence  the  opinion  prevalent  among  the 
ancients  that  Ethiopia  was  rich  in  gold  ; which,  in  former 
times  as  well-as  at  present,  was  brought  to  market  in  quills 
of  the  ostrich  and  vulture.  But  the  main  supply  received 
in  these  days  at  Cairo  and  Alexandria  is  brought  from  the 
alpine  region  whence  issue  the  Gambia,  the  Senegal,  and 
the  Niger, — as  also  from  Bambouk,  a district  situated  to 
the  north-west  of  that  lofty  range,  and  verging  towards  the 
shore  ofnhe  Atlantic.  Of  silver,  copper,  lead,  and  anti- 
mony we  find  no  traces  till  we  ascend  as  high  as  Abys- 
sinia, or  even  to  the  borders  of  Mozambique  and  the  central 
mountains  which  form  the  skeleton  of  the  Libyan  continent.* 

SECTION  II. ZOOLOGY. 

At  the  head  of  the  animals  which  meet  the  eye  of  the 
traveller  in  Egypt  we  are  naturally  led  to  mention  the 

* Murray’s  Historical  Account  of : Discoveries  and  Travels  in  Africa. 

Article  on  Natural  History  by  Professor  Jameson. 


332 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT. 


camel,  or  Camelus  dromedarius , which,  although  a native 
of  a more  eastern  climate,  has  long  been  domesticated  in 
that  country.  It  is  the  principal  beast  of  burden,  and  has 
been  emphatically  named  the  “ ship  of  the  desert.”  But 
for  this  quadruped,  so  patient  of  thirst  and  fatigue,  and 
capable  of  traversing  with  rapidity  immense  deserts  covered 
with  a deep  and  burning  sand,  vast  tracts  both  of  Asia  and 
of  Africa  would  necessarily  be  uninhabited.* 

The  giraffe  or  camelopard  has  been  occasionally  seen  on 
the  southern  borders  of  Egypt.  This  animal,  it  is  well 
known,  is  distinguished  by  an  uncommon  length  of  neck, 
and  by  a head  which  very  much  .resembles  that  of  a sheep, 
while  it  is  provided  with  two  undivided  horns  tipped  with 
brushes  of  hair.  It  has  been  found  fully  eighteen  feet 
high, — a form  which  qualifies  it  for  gathering  its  food,  the 
leaves  of  trees.  It  is  at  the  same  time  a remarkably  gentle 
creature.  Hasselquist  adds,  that  it  is  most  elegant  and 
docile, — that  in  his  days  it  had  been  seen  by  very  few 
natural  historians, — and  that  none  had  given  a perfect 
description  or  good  figure  of  it.  “ I have  only  seen  the 
skin  of  the  animal,”  says  he,  “ and  have  not  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  beholding  it  alive.”! 

The  civet  cat  ( Viverra  civetla)  was  not  unknown  to  the 
ancient  Egyptians  ; but  the  chief  object  of  their  regard  was 
the  Viverra  ichneumon , wThich  was  almost  venerated  with  a 
species  of  worship. 

This  quadruped  ( Herpes tes  Pharaoms ) is  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  Egyptian  animals.  It  possesses  a strong 
instinct  of  destruction,  and  in  searching  for  its  prey  exter- 
minates the  young  of  many  noxious  reptiles.  The  eggs  of 
crocodiles  form  its  favourite  food ; and  this  portion  of  its 
history  being  mingled  in  early  times  with  the  fanciful  notion 
of  its  being  able  to  encounter  and  overcome  that  gigantic 
creature  in  the  adult  state,  divine  honours  were  awarded  to 
it  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  it  became,  and  con- 
tinued for  ages,  an  object  of  superstitious  reverence  to  a 
people  prone  to  this  symbolical  worship  of  the  powers  of 
nature. 

Ichneumons  are  still  domesticated  in  Egypt,  where  they 
rid  the  houses  of  the  smaller  animals,  and  perform  the  office 

* Murray’s  Historical  Account  of  Discoveries  and  Travels  in  Africa. 

Voyages.  &c.5  p.  189. 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT. 


333 


of  our  domestic  cats.  Like  the  latter,  they  are  said  to  be-» 
come  strongly  attached  to  their  accustomed  dwellings,  from 
whence  they  seldom  wander.  They  recognise  the  persons 
and  the  voices  of  their  masters  ; and  the  chief  remnant  of 
their  unsubdued  or  instinctive  nature  is  perceptible  during 
meal-time,  when  they  retire  with  their  food  to  some  quiet 
and  accustomed  corner,  and  manifest  by  an  angry  growling 
their  jealous  dislike  to  interruption.  The  sense  of  smell  is 
very  acute  in  this  animal.  It  dwells  by  the  sides  of  rivers, 
and  in  addition  to  its  favourite  repast  of  crocodiles’  eggs,  it 
eagerly  sucks  the  blood  of  every  creature  which  it  is  able  to 
overcome.  Its  body  is  about  a foot  and  a half  in  length, 
and  its  tail  is  of  nearly  equal  dimensions.  Its  general  colour 
is  a grayish  brown  ; but  when  closely  inspected  each  hair  is 
found  annulated  with  a paler  and  a darker  hue. 

The  sorex,  or  shrew,  also  occurs  in  that  country.  The 
Cape  shrew  inhabits  caverns,  and  is  seen  in  the  southern 
parts  of  Africa  ; while  two  other  species  (the  S.  Olivieri  of 
Desmarets  and  the  <S.  religiosa  of  Is.  Geoffroy)  are  natives 
of  Egypt,  where  they  were  formerly  held  sacred  as  objects 
of  worship,  and  where  their  embalmed  remains  are  still  oc- 
casionally found  in  the  catacombs  of  Sakhara.  The  last- 
named  variety  appeared  to  be  extinct ; but  it  has  been  lately 
ascertained  to  hold  its  place  among  the  animals  of  India. 

Of  the  marmot  tribe,  Egypt  presents  a particular  genus 
called  the  Dipus , or'  jerboa.  According  to  Sonnini,  the 
sandy  ruins  which  surround  the  city  of  Alexandria  are  much 
frequented  by  this  creature.  They  live  in  society,  and  in 
burrows  which  they  dig  with  their  teeth  and  nails.  It  is 
even  said  that  they  make  their  way  through  a soft  stone 
which  lies  beneath  the  stratum  of  sand.  They  are  easily 
alarmed,  and  betake  themselves  precipitately  to  their  holes 
on  the  slightest  noise,  and  consequently  can  only  be  killed 
by  surprise.  The  Arabs,  however,  force  them  out  by  stop- 
ping up  all  the  avenues  to  their  retreats  but  one.  “In 
Egypt,”  says  Sonnini,  “ I kept  six  of  these  animals  for 
some  time  in  a large  iron  cage.  The  very  first  night  they 
entirely  gnawed  through  the  upright  and  cross  pieces  of 
wood,  and  I was  obliged  to  have  the  inside  lined  with  tin. 
They  ate  rice,  walnuts,  and  all  kinds  of  fruit.  They  de- 
lighted in  being  in  the  sun,  and  when  taken  into  the  shade 
huddled  together,  and  seemed  to  suffer  from  the  privation 
of  heat.” 


334 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT. 


The  hippopotamus,  or  river-horse,  appeared  in  Egypt  in 
former  times  ; but  at  present,  either  from  an  increase  of  his 
natural  enemies  or  from  a deficiency  in  the  supply  of  his 
food,  he  is  seldom  seen  below  the  Cataracts.  Malte  Brun 
asserts  that  the  voracity  of  this  animal,  by  annihilating  the 
means  of  his  support,  has  greatly  reduced  the  number  of  his 
race.  Abdollatiph,  with  some  justice,  denominates  the  hip- 
popotamus an  enormous  water-pig.  In  the  days  of  Hassel- 
quist  it  was  believed  that  the  river-horse  did  much  damage 
to  the  Egyptians.  “ He  goes  on  shore,”  says  that  traveller, 
“ and  in  a short  space  of  time  destro}'s  an  entire  field  of  com 
or  clover,  not  leaving  the  least  verdure  as  he  passes  ; for  he 
is  voracious,  and  requiring  much  to  fill  his  great  belly.”* 
This  animal  is  well  known  to  have  cloven  hoofs,  the  mane 
and  tail  of  a horse,  a thick  and  very  heavy  hide,  and  in  size 
to  be  equal  to  a large  ox.  It  was  sacred  in  that  district  of 
Egypt,  where  the  crocodile  was  held  as  an  abomination  ; 
and  occasionally  appears  in  the  more  ancient  sculptures, 
associated  with  the  figures  of  other  less  noble  quadrupeds. 

The  crocodile  ( Lacerta  crocodilis ) is  closely  connected  at 
once  with  the  superstition  and  the  natural  history  of  Egypt. 
The  form  of  this  amphibious  creature  is  familiar  to  the 
youngest  reader.  In  the  mouth  are  two  rows  of  sharply- 
pointed  teeth,  thirty  or  more  on  each  side ; the  upper  part 
of  the  snout  and  forehead  consists  of  one  fixed  bone,  reach- 
ing to  the  ears,  which  are  broad,  surrounded  with  a small 
border,  and  growing  near  the  joint' of  the  upper  jaw.  The 
armour  with  which  the  body  is  covered  may  be  con- 
sidered as  one  of  the  most  elaborate  pieces  of  natural  mech- 
anism. In  the  full-grown  animal  it  is  so  strong  as  easily  to 
repel  a musket-ball,  appearing  as  if  covered  with'  the  most 
regular  and  curiously  carved  work.  The  colour  of  an  adult 
is  blackish-brown  above,  and  yellowish-white  beneath  ; the 
upper  parts  of  the  legs  and  sides  are  varied  with  deep  yellow, 
and  in  some  parts  tinged  writh  green. 

The  female  is  said  to  be  extremely  cautious  in  depositing 
her  eggs  in  the  sand  unobserved.  The  general  number  is 
from  eighty  to  a hundred,  which  are  rather  smaller  than 
those  of  a goose,  and  are  left  to  be  hatched  by  the  heat  of 
the  sun.  The  young,  which  as  soon  as  they  burst  the  shell 
run  into  the  water,  become  the  prey  of  a great  variety  of  ene- 


Voyages  and  Travels,  p.  188. 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT. 


335 


mies  both  in  the  river  and  on  land.  The  vulture  destroys 
millions  of  them,  and,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,  the 
ichneumon  acquired  divine  honours  by  his  useful  instinct  in 
searching  for  the  eggs  and  brood  of  so  formidable  an  animal. 

We  are  told  by  Herodotus,  that  those  who  live  near 
Thebes  and  the  Lake  Moeris  hold  the  crocodile  in  religious 
veneration.  As  a proof  of  this,  they  select  one  which  they 
tame,  suspending  golden  ornaments  from  its  ears,  and  some- 
times precious  stones  of  great  value  ; the  forefeet,  however, 
being  secured  by  a chain.  They  feed  it  with  the  flesh  of  the 
sacred  victims  and  with  other  suitable  food.  As  long  as  it 
lives  they  treat  it  with  unceasing  attention  ; and  when  it 
dies  it  is  embalmed,  and  afterward  deposited  in  a conse- 
crated chest. 

According  to  Labat,  a negro  armed  only  with  a kmfe  in 
his  right  hand,  and  having  his  left  wrapped  round  with  thick 
leather,  will  venture  boldly  to  attack  the  crocodile  in  his  own 
element.  As  sqpn  as  he  observes  his  enemy  near,  the  man 
puts  out  his  left  arm,  which  the  beast  immediately  seizes 
with  his  teeth.  He  then  gives  it  several  stabs  below  the 
chin  where  the  hide  is  very  tender ; and  the  water  coming 
in  at  the  mouth,  thus  involuntarily  laid  open,  the  creature 
is  soon  destroyed. 

The  monitor  of  the  Nile,  known  also  by  the  name  of 
ouran,  the  Lacerta  Nilotica  of  Linnaeus,  is  a species  of 
lizard  about  three  feet  long,  and  was  much  venerated  by  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  because  it  also  devours  the  eggs  and  the 
young  of  the  crocodile.  In  Congo  the  same  animal  is  of  a 
much  larger  size,  and  is  almost  equally  venerated  by  the 
inhabitants,  to  whom,  as  a destroyer  of  very  noxious  ver- 
min, it  proves  ^extremely  useful.  The  land  monitor  of 
Egypt,  which  is  found  in  all'the  neighbouring  deserts,  is  the 
terrestrial  crocodile  of  Herodotus,  and  the  true  sincque  of 
the  ancients.  The  common  chameleon,  so*  remarkable  for 
the  power  it  possesses  of  changing  its  colour,  is  also  a native 
of  Egypt  and  of  the  countries  which  are  contiguous  to  it 
on  the  west. 

The  hyena,  which  is  so  universally  scattered  over  Africa, 
is  well  known  in  Egypt.  It  is  a disgusting  and  trouble- 
some animal,  haunting  the  suburbs,  and  sometimes  even 
penetrating  into  the  streets  after  sunset,  preying  on  offal 
and  stealing  the  remains  of  dead  carcasses. 

There  is  no  great  variety  of  the  goat  or  sheep  tribes  in 


336 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT. 


Egypt.  The  Capra  aigros , or  wild  goat,  is  said  to  inhabit  the 
north  of  Africa ; while  the  mouflon  occurs  in  the  rocky  deserts 
of  Barbary,  as  well  as  in  those  which  border  on  the  Nile. 

But  the  Ovis  tragelaphus  is  a more  interesting  species. 
It  is  about  the  size  of  a common  ram ; the  throat  is  fur- 
nished with  long  pendulous  hairs,  and  the  knees  are  pro- 
tected by  a kind  of  ruffles,  composed  of  straight  hairs  about 
five  inches  long,  hanging  quite  around  them.  The  speci- 
men in  the  French  Mvlseum  was  shot  in  the  vicinity  of 
Cairo,  though  it  is  not  supposed  to  occur  habitually  in  that 
neighbourhood.  This  species  appears  to  have  been  de- 
scribed by-  Dr.  Caius  so  far  back  as  the  year  1561,  from  an 
individual  brought  into  England  from  Barbary.  The  horns 
were  above  a foot  in  circumference  at  the  base,  and  in  front 
were  only  an  inch  asunder.  The  beard  was  formed  by  long 
hairs  on  the  cheeks  and  under-jaw,  and  was  divided  into  two 
lobes.  A setaceous  mane  stood  up  along  the  neck,  and  par- 
ticularly about  the  withers,  where  it  was  tufted,  lengthened, 
erect,  and  of  a darker  colour  than  the  rest  of  the  body, 
which  resembled  in  its  hue  the  winter  dress  of  the  stag. 
This  creature  in  the  domestic  state  whs  gentle  though  petu- 
lant*. It  loved  to  ascend  high  places  and  the  roofs  of  houses, 
and  ran  with  great  swiftness,  sometimes  making  prodigious 
bounds. 

We  have  omitted  the  dog,  ape,  buffalo,  and  other  ani- 
mals which  figure  in  the  Egyptian  mythology,  merely 
because  they  are  not-  peculiar  to  that  country,  and  do  not 
present  any  thing  remarkable  either  in  their  habits  or  con- 
formation. In  the  Lithostrotum  Prcenestinum  copied  by 
Dr.  Shaw,  there  is  exhibited  a great  variety  of  zoological 
Specimens,  to  which,  for  the  reason  just  assigned,  we  pay 
no  attention  ; for,  although  the  creatures  there  represented 
were  well  known  in  Egypt,  they  were  not  unknown  in 
other  parts  of  the  world. 

Our  limits  do  not  permit  us  to  insert  a complete  list  of 
the  reptiles  and  insects  with  which  Egypt  abounds  at  cer- 
tain seasons  of  the  year.  We  may,  however,  mention,  that 
the  Cerastes , which  was  probhbly  the  true  Egyptian  as- 
pic, is  still  found  in  the  neighbouring  deserts.  Dr.  Shaw 
relates  that  he  saw  a couple  of  these  vipers,  which  had  been 
kept  five  years  in  a large  crystal  vessel  without  any  visible 
food.  They  were  usually^  coiled  up  in  some  fine  sand, 
which  was  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  jar  ; and  at  the  time 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT. 


337 


they  “were  shown  to  him  they  had  just  cast  their  skins, 
and  were  as  brisk  and  lively  as  if  newly  taken.  The  horns 
of  this  creature,  from  which  it  takes  its  name,  are  white 
and  shining,  and  have  some  resemblance  to  a grain  of  barley. 

The  locust  is  a formidable  enemy  to  the  Egyptians,  as 
well  as  to  all  the  nations  of  Africa.  When  the  Gryllus 
migratorius , or  wandering  locust,  takes  to  flight,  the  air  is 
darkened,  and  the  surrounding  countries  are  filled  with 
terror.  Mr.  Barrow  mentions,  that  in  a part  of  the  Libyan 
continent,  where  he  happened  to  be  travelling,  the  whole 
surface  of  the  ground  for  nearly  2000  square  miles  might 
literally  be  described  as  covered  with  them.  They  had 
devoured  every  blade  of  grass,  and  every  green  herb  except 
the  reeds. 

For  an  account  of  the  Scarabceus,  the  mystical  beetle, 
the  emblem  of  the  sun  and  of  the  prolific  powers  of  nature, 
we  must  refer  to  works  on  Egyptian  mythology  ; because, 
being  received  into  the  pantheon  of  oriental  superstition, 
its  imaginary  qualities  are  completely  removed  beyond  the 
precincts  of  natural  history. 

Connected  in  some  degree  with  zoological  investigation, 
we  may  simply  allude  to  the  fact  mentioned  by  several 
travellers,  that  exotics,  including  even  the  human  species, 
do  not  thrive  in  Egypt, — the  apology  usually  urged  for  the 
constant  purchase  of  white  slaves  to  replace  the  loss  of  life 
which  could  not  be  supplied  by  propagation.  To  prove  the 
absurdity  of  this  statement,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  mention 
that  the  valley  of  the  Nile  has  been  successively  in  the 
hands  of  Copts,  Persians,  Greeks,  Romans,  Saracens,  and 
Turks  ; and  that  the  progeny  of  all  tlese  races  of  men  may 
be  found  in  the  mixed  people  who  at  present  cultivate  its 
fields  or  occupy  its  cities. 


SECTION  III. BIRDS. 

It  is  admitted  by  the  best  naturalists  that  the  birds  of 
Egypt  do  not  differ  much  from  those  of  Europe.  M.  Geof- 
froy  Saint  Hilaire  saw  the  Egyptian  swan  represented  in 
many  of  the  temples  of  that  country,  both  in  sculptures 
and  in  coloured  paintings,  and  entertains  no  doubt  that 
this  bird  was  the  chenelopex  of  Herodotus,  to  which  the 
ancient  inhabitants  paid  divine  honours,  and  had  even  dedi- 
cated a town  called  Chenoboscion . It  is  not  peculiar  to 
F f 


338 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT. 


Egypt,  but  is  found  all  over  Africa,  and  over  a great  part 
of  Europe. 

The  common  ostrich,  or  StrutMo , is  one  of  the  largest 
and  most  remarkable  members  of  the  feathered  tribe,  and 
has  been  celebrated  from  the  most  remote  antiquity  by 
many  fabulous  writers,  who  ascribed  to  it  qualities  more 
wonderful  than  even  those  which  it  possesses.  It  is  not 
indeed  found  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  being  a bird  pecu- 
liar  to  the  wilderness,  but  it  occasionally  occurs  in  the  ex- 
tensive desert  which  borders  the  western  shore  of  the  Red 
Sea, — a portion  of  territory  which  now  acknowledges  the 
government  of  Mohammed  Ali.  Its  height  is  estimated 
at  seven  or  eight  feet,  and  in  swiftness  it  surpasses  every 
other  animal.  That  it  is  gregarious  no  naturalist  any 
longer  doubts,  being  generally  seen  in  large  troops  at  a 
great  distance  from  the  habitations  of  man.  The  egg  is 
about  three  pounds  in  weight,  and  in  the  warmer  regions 
of  Africa  is  usually  hatched  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  alone, 
though  in  less  heated  regions  the  bird  is  observed  to  sit 
upon  them. 

The  ibis  has  been  recognised  under  five  or  six  different 
species,  of  which  we  shall  notice  only  the  Ibis  ardea  and 
the  Ibis  religiosa.  The  former  of  these  is  as  large  as  a fe- 
male raven,  and  is  found  in  great  numbers  in  Lower  Egypt 
during  the  inundation  of  the  Nile,  feeding  in  those  places 
which  the  water  does  not  reach,  and  afterward  on  such 
spots  as  the  water  has  deserted.  Its  food  consists  of  in- 
sects and  small  frogs,  which  abound  greatly  while  the 
river  is  at  its  height ; and  hence  the  ibis  is  extremely  use- 
ful to  the  inhabitant,  who  might  otherwise  experience 
every  year  one  of  the  most  disgusting  plagues  which  af- 
flicted their  country  in  the  days  of  Moses. 

But  the  other,  the  Ibis  religiosa  of  Cuvier,  or  Abbou 
Hannes  of  Bruce,  is  the  most  celebrated.  It  is  a bird  of 
very  peculiar  aspect,  though  undistinguished  by  much  di- 
versity in  the  colours  of  its  plumage.  It  stands  rather 
more  than  two  feet  high,  and  measures  in  length,  from  the 
tip  of  the  bill  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail,  about  two  feet 
six  inches.  The  bill  is  long  and  arched,  about  seven  inches 
long,  and  considerably  thicker  and  broader  towards  the 
base  than  that  of  the  scarlet  ibis.  The  head  and  neck,  for 
more  than  half  a foot  below  the  eyes,  are  entirely  bare  of 
feathers,  and  present  nothing  but  a black  cutaneous  sur- 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT. 


339 


face.  A small  portion  of  the  lower  part  of  the  neck,  the 
whole  under  parts  of  the  body,  likewise  the  back  and  scapu- 
lars, the  greater  and  lesser  wing-coverts,  and  the  tail,  are  of 
a dingy  or  yellowish  white.  Long  funereal-looking  plumes, 
of  a purplish-black  colour,  proceeding  from  beneath  the  ter- 
tiary wing-feathers,  hang  not  ungracefully  on  either  side 
of  the  tail,  and,  when  the  wings  are  closed,  conceal  the 
points  of  the  primary  and  secondary  quills,  both  of  which 
are  white  tipped  with  deep  greenish  black.  The  legs  and 
feet  are  a deep  lead  colour,  and  the  claws  are  black. 

Among  the  ancient  Egyptians,  a people  prone  to  award 
divine  honours  to  the  brute  creation,  the  ibis  was  regarded 
as  an  object  of  superstitious  worship,  and  hence  its  sculp- 
tured outline  frequently  occurs  among  the  hierogl}qphical 
images  which  adorn  the  walls  of  their  temples.  The 
conservation  of  its  mystical  body  occupied  the  assidu- 
ous care  of  their  holiest  priests  while  living,  and  exercised 
the  gloomy  art  of  their  most  skilful  embalmers  when  dead. 
To  slay  or  insult  it  would  have  been  deemed  a crime  of  the 
darkest  hue,  and  sufficient  to  call  down  upon  the  offender 
the  immediate  vengeance  of  Heaven. 

The  Egyptian  vulture,  or  Vultur  percnopterus,  is  de- 
scribed as  a powerful  but  very  disgusting  bird.  The  face  is 
naked  and  wrinkled,  the  eyes  are  large  and  black,  the  beak 
hooked,  the  talons  long  and  extended  for  prey,  and  the 
whole  body  covered  with  filth.  Notwithstanding,  says 
Hasselquist,  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt  cannot  be  too  thank- 
ful to  Providence  for  its  services.  All  the  places  round 
Cairo,  he  tells  us,  were  in  his  time  filled  with  the  dead 
bodies  of  asses  and  camels,  and  thousands  of  these  birds  fly 
about  and  devour  the  carcasses  before  they  putrefy  and  fill 
the  air  with  noxious  exhalations.  They  assemble  with 
the  kites  every  morning  and  evening  in  the  square  called 
Rohneli,  below  the  castle, — which  is  the  place  for  execut- 
ing capital  offenders, — there  to  receive  the  alms  of  fresh 
meat  left  them  by  the  legacies  of  wealthy  great  men.  They 
are  said  even  to  follow  the  yearly  caravan  to  Mecca,  that 
they  may  devour  the  offal  of  the  slaughtered  beasts  and  the 
bodies  of  the  camels  which  die  by  the  way.  The  name  of 
this  bird  among  the  Arabs  is  Rachama.* 

* In  the  7th  volume  of  Bruce’s  Travels,  p.  265,  second  edition,  there 
is  hazarded  an  unfortunate  criticism  suggested  by  the  name  of  this  bird. 

It  will  not  be  improper,”  says  the  great  traveller,  “ that  I here  take 


340  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT.  % - 

The  oriental  dotterell,  or  Charadrius  Kervan , a bird 
about  the  size  of  a crow,  is  frequently  met  with  in  Lower 
Egypt,  in  the  acacia  groves  near  the  villages  of  Abousir 
and  Sakhara,  in  the  vicinity  of  sepulchres,  and  in  the 
desert.  It  has  a shrill  voice  resembling  that  of  the  black 
woodpecker,  and  utters  rather  an  agreeable  note.  Its 
principal  food  are  the  rats  and  mice  with  which,  at  certain 
seasons,  the  country  abounds.  It  seldom  drinks,  being  ori- 
ginally a native  of  the  wilderness,  and  has  been  kept  in  a 
cage  several  months  without  water. 

The  Charadrius  himantopus,  on  the  contrary,  comes  to 
Egypt  in  the  month  of  October,  and  is  usually  found  in 
moist  places  and  the  neighbourhood  of  lakes  ; possessing 
nearly  the  same  habits  as  the  tringa  JEgyptiaca,  or  plover, 
which  appears  at  the  ebb  of  the  inundation. 

The  Corvus  JEgyptiacus , or  Egyptian  crow,  which  is  not 
larger  than  a lark,  lives  in  trees,  and  feeds  on  insects. 
Hasselquist  relates  that  he  has  found  in  its  stomach  the 
remains  of  scorpions  and  scolopendras. 

The  Alcedo  rudis,  and  the  Alcedo  JEgyptiacus , or  king- 
fisher, are  observed  in  Egypt,  chiefly  on  the  banks  of  the 
Nile,  where  they  live  on  small  fish,  frogs,  and  insects. 

The  bat,  a member  of  the  numerous  family  of  the  Vesper - 
tiliones , next  invites  our  notice.  The  Egyptian  bat  is  dis- 
tinguished by  its  ash-coloured  fur  and  its  long  and  slender 
tail.  It  inhabits  the  subterranean  galleries  and  other  exca- 
vations of  Egypt. 

notice  that  the  English  translator,  by  his  ignorance  of  language,  has  lost 
all  the  beauty,  and  even  the  sense  of  the  Hebrew  original.  He  makes 
God  say  (Exod.  xix.  4),  ‘Ye  have  seen  what  I did  unto  the  Egyptians, 
and  how  I bare  you  on  eagles’  wings,  and  brought  you  unto  myself.’ 
Now,  if  the  expression  had  been  really  eagle,  the  word  would  have  been 
nisr,  and  would  have  signified  nothing ; but  in  place  of  eagle,  God  says 
vulture,  the  emblem  of  maternal  affection  ; so  that  the  passage  will  run 
thus  : Say  to  the  children  of  Israel,  see  how  I have  punished  the  Egyp- 
tians, while  I bore  you  up  on  the  wings  of  the  Rachama.  that  is,  of  pa- 
rental tenderness  and  affection,  and  brought  you  home  to  myself.  It  is 
our  part  to  be  thankful  that  the  truths  of  Holy  Scripture  are  pre- 
served to  us  entire,  but  still  it  is  a rational  regret  that  great  part  of  the 
beauty  of  the  original  is  lost  by  this  kind  of  interpretation.” 

After  all  this  minute  criticism,  the  reader  will  find  it  hard  to  believe 
that  the  original  word  is  not  Rachama,  as  is  here  stated,  but  nisr, — or 
nisrim  the  plural  form, — and  consequently,  according  to  Bruce’s  own 
argument,  the  authorized  translation  is  right,  and  his  correction  founded 
in  ignorance.  He  cannot  have  looked  into  the  Hebrew  Bible,  where  the 
language  is  ’DJD 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT. 


341 


The  duck  of  the  Nile,  or  Anas  Nilotica,  occurs  wild  in 
Upper  Egypt,  and,  perhaps,  on  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea. 
The  neck  and  superior  part  of  the  head  are  white  with  black 
spots,  and  a gray  line  runs  lengthways  behind  the  eyes ; 
the  under  part  of  the  body  and  the  thighs  are  of  the  same 
colour.  The  Arabians  call  it  bah  ; and  in  Lower  Egypt  it 
is  often  seen  in  a domesticated  state  among  flocks  of  tame 
fowls. 

The  Sterna  Nilotica , or  Egyptian  sea-swallow,  is  esteemed 
a beautiful  bird.  Its  beak  is  black ; its  head  and  neck  are 
grayish,  with  small  black  spots  ; the  part  round  the  eyes  is 
black,  spotted  with  white ; the  back,  wings,  and  tail  are 
gray ; the  belly  and  under  part  of  the  neck  are  white ; the 
feet  are  red,  and  the  toes  black.  The  Arabs  call  it  abunures. 
It  is  found  on  the  Nile ; but  it  seems  to  prefer  the  canals 
near  Cairo  when  filled  with  the  mud  of  the  river. 

The  pelican,  or  Pelecanus  onocratalus , is  a migratory 
bird,  which  appears  in  Egypt  about  the  middle  of  September. 
In  their  flight  they  form  an  acute  angle,  like  the  common 
wild-goose.  Some  of  them  remain  at  Damietta,  or  in  the 
islands  of  the  Delta,  but  the  greater  part  go  up  as  far  as  th« 
capital. 

The  Tetrao  coturnix , or  quail,  is  likewise  a bird  of  pas- 
sage,— an  amazing  number  of  which  migrate  to  Egypt  in 
the  month  of  March,  the  season  at  which  the  wheat  ripens. 
They  conceal  themselves  among  the  crops ; but  the  peasants, 
aware  of  their  arrival,  spread  nets  over  the  com,  and  sur- 
round the  field,  at  the  same  time  making  a noise  to  rouse 
them  from  their  feed.  In  this  way  vast  multitudes  are 
caught,  which  supply  the  natives  with  a very  savoury  dish. 

“ If  the  food  of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert  was  a bird,”  says 
Mr.  Hasselquist,  “ this  is  certainly  it,  being  so  common  in 
the  places  through  which  they  passed.” 


SECTION  IV. FISHES. 

The  only  tenants  of  the  water  which  can  be  considered 
as  peculiar  to  Egypt  are  such  as  frequent  the  Nile ; and 
to  these  narrow  limits  we  shall  confine  our  sketch  of 
ichthyology. 

The  Eckeneis  naucrates , or  sucking-fish,  occurs  at  Alex- 
andria, though  very  rarely,  and  is  by  the  Arabs  called  charnel 
or  ferrhun. 


F f 2 


342 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT. 


The  Sparus  Niloticus,  as  its  name  imports,  is  found  in 
the  Nile  ; the  vernacular  appellation  is  giralle. 

The  Labrus  Niloticus , called  bulti  by  the  Arabs,  is 
esteemed  the  best  fish  in  their  waters. 

The  perch  occurs  under  three  different  specific  forms, 
— the  JEgyptiaca,  the  Nilotica,  and  the  Damiettica.  They 
ascend  the  river  considerably  above  Cairo,  and  are  much 
sought  after  by  the  inhabitants  of  that  city.  The  flesh  is 
white,  and  has  an  exquisite  flavour. 

The  Silurus  clarias,  a singular  fish,  called  schielan  by 
the  Arabians,  occurs  sometimes  in  the  Nile.  It  defends 
itself  with  its  fins,  the  bones  of  which  are  understood  to  be 
poisonous.  A similar  character  attaches  to  the  Silurtis 
anguillaris , and  the  Silurus  mystus ; neither  of  which, 
however,  is  so  well  known. 

The  Salmo  Niloticus , or  salmon  of  the  Nile,  is  a very 
valuable  fish,  and  ascends  the  stream  as  high  as  Cairo.  It 
frequently  wreighs  1 00  lb. ; but  is,  notwithstanding,  very 
delicate  eating ; and  is  held  to  be  one  of  the  best  dishes 
supplied  by  the  river.  The  Arabs  call  it  nefareh. 

Very  unlike  the  animal  just  described  is  the  Tetraodon, 
which,  according  to  the  inhabitants,  has  recently  taken 
possession  of  the  Nile.  The  Arabs  call  it  fahaka,  and  say 
that  it  grows  to  a prodigious  size.  When  newly  caught, 
the  skin  stings  like  a nettle,  creating  small  pustules  on  the 
hands  of  the  fishermen ; and,  if  eaten,  it  causes  almost 
instant  death. 

The  Mugil  ccphalus  and  Clupea  Alosa,  the  one  the  mullet 
and  the  other  a herring,  are  well  known  to  the  Egyptians. 
The  latter,  to  which  the  Arabs  have  given  the  name  of 
sagboga,  goes  up  from  the  sea  in  December  and  January 
towards  the  capital,  where  it  exercises  the  ingenuity  of  the 
Arabian  cooks,  who  are  said  to  prepare  it  for  the  table  in 
such  a manner  as  to  intoxicate  the  eaters.* 

SECTION  V. PLANTS. 

The  Papyrus , or  Cyperus  papyrus  of  Linnaeus,  most 
naturally  suggests  itself  whenever  we  turn  our  attention  to 
the  vegetable  productions  of  Egypt.  The  stalk  is  of  a vivid 
green,  of  a triangular  form,  and  tapering  towards  the  top. 
Pliny  says  that  the  root  is  as  thick  as  a man’s  arm,  and  that 


Hasselquist’a  Voyages  and  Travels  in  the  Levant,  p.  223,  &c. 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OP  EGYPT. 


343 


the  plant  occasionally  exceeded  fifteen  feet  in  height.  At 
present  it  is  rarely  found  more  than  ten  feet  long, — alx>ut 
two  feet  or  little  more  of  the  lower  part  of  the  stalk  being 
covered  with  hollow  sharp-pointed  leaves,  which  overlap 
each  other  like  scales,  and  fortify  the  most  exposed  pr*rt  of 
the  stem.  These  are  usually  of  a yellow  or  dusky-brown 
colour.  The  head  is  composed  of  a number  of  small  grassy 
filaments,  each  about  a foot  long.  Near  the  middle  each 
of  these  filaments  parts  into  four,  and  in  the  point  or  par- 
tition are  four  branches  of  flowers,  the  termination  of  which 
is  not  unlike  an  ear  of  wheat  in  form,  but  is  in  fact  a soft 
silky  husk. 

This  singular  vegetable  was  used  for  a variety  of  pur- 
poses, the  principal  of  which  was  the  structure  of  boats  and 
the  manufacture  of  paper.  In  regard  to  the  first,  we  are 
told  by  Pliny,  that  a piece  of  the  acacia-tree  was  put  in  the 
bottom  to  serve  as  a keel,  to  which  the  plants  were  joined, 
being  first  sewed  together,  then  gathered  up  at  stem  and 
stem,  and  made  fast  by  means  of  a ligature. 

“ Consentur  bibulaMempbilis  cymba  papyro.” 

But  it  is  as  a substance  for  writing  upon  that  the  papyrus 
is  best  known  and  most  interesting  to  the  scholar.  The 
process  by  which  the  plant  was  prepared  for  this  purpose  is 
briefly  stated  by  the  Roman  naturalist.  The  thick  part  of 
the  stalk  being  cut  in  two,  the  pellicle  between  the  pith  and 
the  bark,  or  perhaps  the  two  pellicles,  were  stripped  off  and 
divided  by  an  iron  instrument.  This  was  squared  at  the 
sides  so  as  to  be  like  a riband,  then  laid  upon  a smooth  table 
or  dresser,  after  being  cut  into  proper  length.  These 
stripes  or  ribands  were  lapped  over  each  other  by  a very 
thin  border,  and  then  pieces  of  the  same  kind  were  laid 
transversely,  the  length  of  these  last  answering  to  the 
breadth  of  the  first.  This  being  done,  a weight  was  laid 
upon  them,  while  they  were  yet  moist,  after  which  they 
were  dried  in  the  sun.  It  was  thought  that  the  water  of 
the  Nile  had  a gummy  quality  sufficiently  strong  to  glue 
these  stripes  together  ; but  Mr.  Bruce,  who  ascertained  by 
experiment  that  this  opinion  is  perfectly  groundless,  sug- 
gests that  the  effect  was  produced  by  means  of  the  saccha- 
rine matter  with  which  the  papyrus  is  strongly  impregnated. 


344 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT. 


The  flower  of  this  plant,  it  is  well  known,  was  used  for 
religious  purposes.* 

The  Persea  is  celebrated  among  the  ancients  as  a beauti- 
ful fruit-tree,  which  adorned  and  enriched  Egypt  at  an  early 
period,  although  naturalists  have  failed  to  recognise  it  in 
that  country  in  more  recent  times.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
the  Aguacate  of  St.  Domingo,  and  has  accordingly  obtained 
from  botanists  the  name  of  Laurus  Persea.  Others  have 
attempted  to  prove  the  identity  of  it  with  the  Sibesten,  but 
the  differences  are  too  glaring  to  allow  this  hypothesis  to 
be  maintained.  Perhaps  its  type  may  still  be  discovered  in 
India,  whence,  it  is  more  than  probable,  it  was  originally 
derived. 

The  Lotus , associated  with  so  many  fanciful  ideas  and 
religious  rites,  makes  a greater  figure  than  any  other  plant 
in  the  mythological  history  of  the  Egyptians.  It  is,  prop- 
erly speaking,  a species  of  Nymphaea  or  water-lily,  which 
on  the  disappearance  of  the  inundation  covers  all  the  canals 
and  pools  with  its  broad  round  leaves  ; among  which  the 
flowers  in  the  form  of  cups  of  bright  white  or  azure  blue, 
rest  with  inimitable  grace  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 
There  are  two  species  of  the  lotus,  the  white  and.  the  blue, 
both  known  to  the  ancients,  though  the  latter  kind  is  seldom 
mentioned. 

The  rose-lily  of  the  Nile,  or  the  Egyptian  bean,  which  is 
frequently  found  carved  on  the  monuments,  is  not  at  present 
seen  in  that  country;  so  that  the  plant  would  have  been 
utterly  unknown  to  naturalists,  if  they  had  not  found  it  in 
India.  It  is  the  Nymphaea  nelumbo  of  Linnaeus,  and  is  in 
truth  the  plant  upon  which  the  Egyptian  lotophagi,  or  lotus- 
eaters,  were  accustomed  to  live. 

But  the  fruits  of  the  lotus,  so  much  praised  by  Homer, 
and  which  so  greatly  delighted  the  companions  of  Ulysses, 
were  those  of  the  modern  jujube  or  Rhamnus  lotus.  The 
same  tree  is  described  by  Theophrastus  under  the  name  of 
the  lotus,  and  is,  perhaps,  the  duda'ine  of  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures. There  is  another  species  still,  mentioned  by  Pliny 
as  the  Faba  Grazca,  or  lotus;  but  this  has  been  ascertained 
to  be  different  from  the  Egyptian,  being  no  other  than  the 
Diospyros  lotus , — a sort  of  guayacana , or  ebony. f 

* Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  xiii.  cap.  ii.;  Bruce’s  Travels,  vol.  vii.  p.  118. 
t Malte  Brun,  iv.  42, 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT. 


345 


The  Phoenix  dactylifera , or  date-tree,  is  of  great  value  to 
the  inhabitants  of  Egypt, — many  families,  particularly  in 
the  upper  provinces,  having  hardly  any  other  food  a great 
part  of  the  year  ; while  the  stones  or  kernels  are  ground  for 
the  use  of  the  camels.  The  leaves  are  converted  into 
baskets ; the  soft  bark  into  ropes  and  rigging  for  their 
boats  ; and  the  timber,  though  soft,  is  used  for  rafters  in 
the  construction  of  houses. 

The  Ficus  sycomorus  is  not  less  useful  in  a country  des- 
titute of  all  the  harder  description  of  forest  trees.  It  grows 
to  an  immense  size  in  Egypt,  some  specimens  having  been 
seen  by  travellers  fully  fifty  feet  in  circumference.  Of  this 
tree  the  ancient  inhabitants  made  coffins  for  their  mummies ; 
and  no  timber  certainly  could  have  been  better  suited  for 
the  purpose,  as  it  resists  the  powers  of  decomposition  during 
several  thousand  years.  As  it  sends  forth  large  leafy 
branches,  it  affords  an  excellent  shade  to  the  weary  trav- 
eller; and  the  fruit,  although  rather  insipid,  is  full  of 
moisture,  and  on  that  account  well  adapted  to  the  wants  of 
the  climate.  It  buds  in  the  latter  end  of  March,  and  the 
fruit  ripens  in  the  begimiing  Of  June. 

The  plantain-tree,  or  Musa  paradisaica,  flowers  in  Octo- 
ber and  November,  or  immediately  after  the  inundation  of 
the  Nile,  when  the  air  is  temperate  and  the  earth  still 
moist.  The  fruit  is  said  to  be  sweet,  somewhat  hard,  or 
between  a pear  and  a date,  a little  viscid  and  mealy, -melting 
in  the  mouth  without  being  chewed.  It  is,  however,  highly 
valued,  and  brings  a great  price  at  Cairo,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  which  the  tree  does  not  thrive.  The  nitrous  fields 
around  Rosetta,  and  perhaps  the  breeze  from  the  sea,  con- 
stitute the  soil  and  climate  in  which  it  prospers  the  most 
luxuriantly. 

Egypt  of  course  abounds  in  melons  and  cucumbers. 
There  is  one,  however,  the  Cucumis  Chate,  which  bears  the 
name  of  the  country,  and  is  sometimes  called  the  queen  of 
cucumbers,  which  grows  in  the  vicinity  of  Grand  Cairo,  and 
nowhere  else.  This  fruit,  says  Hasselquist,  is  a little 
watery,  the  flesh  is  almost  of  the  same  substance  as  the 
melon,  and  tastes  sweet  and  cool.  The  grandees  and 
Europeans  in  the  capital  eat  it  as  the  most  pleasant  fruit 
they  can  find,  and  that  from  which  they  have  the  least  to 
dread  in  point  of  health. 

Allied  to  these  are  the  gourds,  one  of  which,  called  Cu- 


846 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT. 


curbita  lagenaria,  is  much  used  by  the  poor  people.  It  is 
boiled  and  seasoned  with  vinegar, — the  shell,  with  the 
addition  of  rice  and  a little  meal,  being  mashed  into  a kind 
of  pudding.  It  grows  in  all  parts  of  Egypt,  and  even  in  the 
deserts  of  Arabia,  wherever  there  is  found  a little  rich  soil 
of  the  proper  depth. 

The  Colocasium,  or,  as  it  is  described  by  Hasselquist, 
the  Arum  colocasia , is  still  cultivated  in  Egypt  for  the  sake 
of  its  large  esculent  roots,  and  continues  to  maintain  the 
high  character  which  it  received  from  the  ancients. 

The  Carthamus  tinctorius , or  safflower,  is  raised  in  large 
quantities  throughout  the  country,  and  is  a source  of  con- 
siderable profit  to  the  natives.  The  leaves,  which  are  used  in 
dying,  are  gathered  three  times  in  the  year ; and  after  being 
carefully  washed,  pressed,  and  dried,  are  exported  to  all 
parts  of  Europe,  where  they  supply  the  artisan  with  a 
beautiful  yellow.  At  Cairo  the  young  leaves  are  also 
esteemed  an  excellent  sallad. 

The  Acacia  of  Upper  Egypt,  or  the  Mimosa  Lebbeck,  is 
cultivated  in  the  gardens  of  Cairo,  though  it  is  very  doubt- 
ful whether  it  be  originally  a native  of  the  country.  But 
the  Mimosa  Nilotica , or  Acacia  vera,  is  decidedly  Egyptian 
in  its  origin,  and  is  much  valued  on  account  of  its  producing 
the  gum-arabic,  or  frankincense  of  Arabia.  Alpinus  con- 
founded this  with  the  Mimosa  Senegal , and  even  described 
the  celebrated  gum  as  the  produce  of  the  latter ; but  the 
Egyptians  know  the  one  from  the  other  extremely  well, 
calling  the  true  species  charad,  while  the  other,  which  is  of 
no  use  or  value,  they  denominate  fetne.  The  genuine  gum 
is  gathered  in  great  quantities  in  Arabia,  and  is  itself  of 
two  kinds.  The  best  is  found  along  the  northern  bay  of 
the  Red  Sea,  near  Thor  or  Thur,  and  hence  the  name  Thus 
given  to  it  by  the  Romans  as  well  as  by  the  dealers  in 
Egypt.  It  is  clearer  or  more  pellucid  than  the  inferior  sort, 
which  is  collected  in  the  desert  between  Cairo  and  the 
Isthmus  of  Suez. 

The  Henna , or  Lawsonia  spinosa,  which  is  purely  an 
article  of  female  luxury,  grows  both  in  Upper  and  in  Lower 
Egypt,  and  flowers  from  May  till  August.  To  obtain  a 
deep  yellow  for  their  nails  the  ladies  make  a paste  of  the 
pulverized  leaves,  and  bind  it  on  their  hands  and  feet  all 
night.  The  die  lasts  for  three  or  four  weeks,  after  which 
it  requires  to  be  renewed.  This  custom  is  so  ancient  among 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT. 


347 


the  Egyptians,  as  well  as  other  eastern  nations,  that  mum- 
mies are  occasionally  discovered  with  a similar  tincture  on 
their  nails.  The  Arabs  call  it  chenna,  or  al-chenna. 

Aloe  perfoliata  vera , the  mitre-shaped  aloe,  is,  among  the 
Egyptian  Moslem,  a symbolic  plant,  and  in  some  measure 
dedicated  to  religion.  Whoever  returns  from  Mecca  hangs 
this  plant  over  his  street  door,  as  a token  of  his  having  per- 
formed that  holy  journey.  The  superstitious  natives  believe 
that  this  shrub  prevents  evil  spirits  and  apparitions  from 
entering  their  houses;  and  in  this  feeling  the  Jews  and 
Christians  of  Cairo  participate,  so  far  at  least  as  to  venerate 
the  sacred  aloe. 


SECTION  VI. ZOOPHYTES. 

These  hold  a rank  between  animals  and  vegetables,  most 
of  them  taking  root  and  growing  up  into  stems  and  branches. 
Some  are  soft  and  naked,  and  others  are  covered  with  a 
hard  shell. 

The  Corallines  are  composed  of  capillary  tubes  whose 
extremities  pass  through  a calcareous  crust,  and  open  into 
pores  on  the  surface.  They  are  entirely  submarine,  and 
owing  to  their  branches  being  finely  divided  and  jointed 
resembling  some  species  of  lichen,  they  were  till  lately 
arranged  by  botanists  with  the  cryptogamous  plants.  In 
appearance  they  certainly  approach  very  nearly  to  some  of 
the  vegetables  ; but  their  calcareous  covering  is  alone  suf- 
ficient to  prove  that  they  are  allied,  in  however  humble  a 
station,  to  a more  elevated  order  of  beings. 

The  Red  Coral , or  Corallium  rubrum , is  fished  up  in  the 
Red  Sea.  It  grows  much  slower  than  the  madrepores,  and 
never  occurs  in  such  masses.  It  is  found  at  different 
depths,  and  it  is  remarked,  says  Professor  Jameson,  that 
light  exerts  a powerful  influence  on  its  growth  as  well  as  on 
its  colour,  the  tint  being  darker  in  proportion  to  the  deep- 
ness of  the  sea. 

The  Sponges  consist  of  an  entirely  ramified  mass  of  ca- 
pillary tubes,  and  were  at  one  time  supposed  by  many  to  be 
the  production  of  a species  of  worm  which  is  often  found 
straying  about  their  cavities.  Others  have  imagined  them 
to  be  mere  vegetables ; but  that  they  are  possessed  of  a 
living  principle  seems  evident  from  the  fact  of  their  alter- 


348 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EGYPT. 


nately  contracting  and  dilating  their  pores,  and  shrinking 
in  some  degree  from  the  touch  whenever  examined  in  their 
native  waters.  They  are  the  most  torpid  of  all  the  zoo- 
phytes. The  officinal  sponge  is  elastic  and  very  full  of 
holes  ; it  grows  into  irregular  tubes  of  a woolly  consistence, 
and  generally  adheres  by  a very  broad  base  to  the  rocks. 
When  it  is  first  taken  it  has  a strong  fishy  smell,  and 
requires  to  be  carefully  washed  in  order  to  prevent  its 
growing  putrid. 

The  Polypes  are  gelatinous  animals,  consisting  of  a long 
tubular  body,  fixed  at  the  base,  and  surrounded  at  the  mouth 
by  arms  or  tenacula  ; but,  as  these  are  by  no  means  peculiar 
to  the  oriental  parts  of  Africa,  we  hold  it  sufficient  to  have 
mentioned  their  existence. 

Madrepores  are  found  on  the  east  coast  of  Egypt,  and 
along  the  shores. of  Africa,  each  species  being  peculiar  to 
a certain  latitude,  and  increasing  in  number  according  to 
the  greater  warmth  of  the  climate.  The  Red  Sea  presents 
a considerable  variety  of  millepores,  sertularias,  cellularias, 
alcyoniums,  and  sponges,  and  occasionally  some  fine  speci- 
mens of  the  gorgonia  or  sea-fan. 

It  is  well  known  that  immense  reefs  and  islands  are  pro- 
duced by  the  minutest  of  zoophytic  animals.  These  sub- 
marine formations,  in  some  parts  of  the  world,  have  been 
traced  a thousand  miles  in  length,  fifty  miles  in  breadth, 
and  to  depths  almost  unfathomable.  There  are  found,  too, 
at  considerable  elevations  on  the  land,  beds  of  rocks,  and 
even  entire  hills,  of  very  remote  origin,  containing  a variety 
of  corals ; thus  affording  a satisfactory  proof  that  these 
animals  must  have  existed  in  countless  numbers  in  a former 
condition  of  our  earth,  and  that  then,  as  at  present,  they 
contributed  greatly  towards  adding  to  the  solid  matter  of 
the  globe. 


THE  END. 


* - ' jfe 


■ * 


. 


VOLUMES  ALREADY  PUBLISHED. 

L n.  ID.  HUMAN'S  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

IV.  V.  LOCKHART’S  LIFE  OF  NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE  .. 
VI.  SOUTHEYS  LIFE  OF  LORD  NELSON-  »•.»•• ........... 

VU.  WILLIAMS’S  LIFE  OF  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT  .. 

VUL  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  INSECTS 

DC  GALT'S  LIFE  OF  LORD  BYRON...... Wf.. 

X-  BUSH’S  LIFE  OF  MOHAMMED .1... 

XI  SCOTT  ON  DEMONOLOGY  AND  WITCHCRAFT. . 
XILXnL  GLEIG’S  HISTORY  OF  THE  BIBLE ...... 

XIV.  DISCOVERY,  See.  IN  THE  POLAR  SEAS  AND  BEGIOI 

XV.  CROLY’S  LIFE  OF  GEORGE  IV 

XVI.  DISCOVERY  AND  ADVENTURE  IN  AFRICA 

XVIL  XVm.  XIX.  CUNNINGHAM’S  LIVES  OF  PAINTERS,  A 
XX.  JAMES’S  HISTORY  OF  CHIVALRY  AND  THE  CRUSAD3 
XXL  XXIL  BELL’S  LIFE  OF  MARY  QUEEN  OF  SOOTS... 
XXIH.  RUSSELL'S  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  EGYPT 

XXIV.  FLETCHER’S  HISTORY  OF  POLAND 

XXV.  SMITH’S  FESTIVALS,  GAMES,  AND  AMUSEMENTS. 

XXVL  BREW8TER8  LIFE  OF  SIR  ISAAC  NEWTON 

XXVII.  RUSSELL’S  PALESTINE,  OR  THE  HOLY  LAND  . • , 
XXVHI.  ME  MB'S  MEMOIRS  OF  THE  EMPRESS  JOSEPHIN 

XXI X.  THE  COURT  AND  CAMP  OF  BONAPARTE . 

XXX.  LIVES  OP  EARLY  NAVIGATORS,  Ac. 

Classical  Series* 

LIL  XENOPHON.  (Anabasis  and  Cyropsedia.) 

I1LIV.  LELAND’S  DEMOSTHENES  t 

V.  ROSE’S  SALLUST . 

Dramatic  Series* 

l H.  HI.  MASSINGER’S  PLAYS . 

IV.  V.  FORD’S  PLAYS 


XtlBSULRlT  OP  SBI.EOT  ] 

IU.  CYRIL  THORNTON .....Byi 

OL  IV.  THE  DUTCHMAN’S  FIRESIDE-.......' 

V.VL  THE  YOUNG  DUKE 

vn.  VUL  ANASTASIUS 

DC  X PHILn*  AUGUSTUS 

X2.XIL  CALEB  WILLIAMS....1 .. < 

xra.  xrv.  the  club-book .... 

XV. XVL  de  verb  

xvn.  xvm.  the  smuggler 

XIX  XX.  EUGENE  ARAM 1 

XXLXXH.  EVELINA ' 

ZT  The  above  worfca  are  sold  separately,  or  ta  so 


